Chapter 4 - Calendrical Texts and Priestly Courses
The calendrical texts from Qumran Cave 4 are numerous and significant. They
comprise eighteen texts (4Q319-330 and 4Q337), not including many texts which,
while not strictly calendrical, presuppose or present a calendrical system. The
latter category includes the Genesis Florilegium in Chapter 3 above and the
First Letter on Works Righteousness in Chapter 6 and the Brontologion in Chapter
8 below.
Especially noteworthy is the absence among the Qumran caches of any text
advocating a different calendar. This absence is striking because the calendar
of the Qumran materials was only one of several in use and seems to have
represented a minority position. The calendrical texts are, therefore, central
to any attempt to understand the significance of the Dead Sea Scrolls. In order
to follow the rather technical expositions of these texts, one must know a few
facts about the calendar they advocate, and about the priestly courses (mishmarot)
which served in the Temple at Jerusalem.
The calendar is purely solar, based on a particular understanding of the Creation account found in Genesis. In its exclusive reliance on the sun, it stands in stark contrast to later Rabbinic Judaism, which followed a lunisolar calendar of 354 days relying mainly on the moon. Earlier, the Pharisaic forerunners of Rabbinic Judaism seem to have followed an even more lunar-oriented calendar, though from the evidence of the Qumran texts, the lunisolar calendar seems already to have gained currency during at least some of the period of the Scrolls.
In the system that finally emerged, probably under Greco-Roman influence, in
Rabbinic Judaism at the end of the fourth century AD, extra lunar months were
intercalated seven times in every nineteen years to produce the kind of
harmonization necessary to ensure that the calendar remained fixed to the
seasons of the solar cycle. The Muslims, for their part, reflecting probably an
earlier phase of this historical process, never made the complicated
mathematical and calendrical intercalations necessary for passage from a lunar
to a lunisolar calendar.
By contrast, according to the solar calendar at Qumran, the year always contains
precisely 364 days. The only question that must be asked is whether this
calendar goes back to Maccabean times, as the third text on Priestly Courses
implies - or even earlier - and whether the Maccabeans themselves preferred it
before the Pharisees took over with the rise of Herod once and for all. However
this may be, the anti-Pharisaic and consequently, the anti-Herodian character of
the calendar is not to be gainsaid.
Each year consists of twelve months of thirty days each, plus four additional
days, one of which is intercalated at the end of each three-month period. Thus
the first and second months are 30 days long, while, with its added day, the
third month totals 31 days; then the pattern repeats (see Table 1). New Year’s
Day and the first day of each three-month period always fall on a Wednesday.
Wednesday is the day mandated as the first day by the creation order, since the heavenly lights - sun, moon and stars, the basis of any calendar - were created on the fourth day (Gen. 1:14-19). The great advantage of the Qumran calendar over its lunisolar rival is that it results in fixed dates for the major festivals.
They cannot fall on a Sabbath, thereby avoiding worrisome difficulties affecting
sacrifices. In fact,
this calendar guarantees that a particular day of any given month will always
fall on the same day of
the week every year.
Although the authors of the Qumran calendrical texts disdained the lunisolar calendar, a number of their writings synchronize the two versions (see Priestly Courses I and Priestly Courses II, below). The reasons for this synchronization are not entirely clear, but two suggestions may be somewhere close to the mark. First, these authors considered all time holy and its measurement ordained by God. It was probably thought necessary that someone keep a proper record of its passing.
Since the opponents of the authors could not be relied upon to do so - following, as they did, an illicit system - the Qumran authors took the responsibility. In order to discharge this responsibility, it would be as necessary to be able to point out errors as to know the correct answers. Thus, they tracked time by the system of their opponents as well as by their own. Second, the authors of these texts certainly expected that at some time they would be in power in Jerusalem.
At that time, of course, they would impose the solar calendar, but in order to know where they were in the year, they would have to know both the false lunisolar date and the real solar date. In fact, there is some evidence that at certain points in the Second Temple period the solar calendar actually was imposed, at least for short periods. In all their timekeeping, the authors of the Qumran calendars reckoned not only by months, but also by the rotation of the priestly courses (mishmarot).
The courses would come into Jerusalem for service at the temple for one week, then rotate out as the next group arrived to serve. Qumran texts relied upon this ‘eternal cycle’ not only for their calendar units, but also for their chronography and historiography (see Priestly Courses III). Every Sabbath, month, year and feast bore the name of a priestly family (see Priestly Courses IV).
The priestly rotation required six years before the same group would be serving
once again in the same week of the year. This sexennial cycle reflects the need
to synchronize the solar calendar with the lunisolar version. Since the solar
calendar totalled 364 days to the year, while the lunisolar calendar alternated
months of 29 and 30 days, the lunisolar calendar would ‘fall behind’ by ten days
per year. After three years, however, the lunisolar calendar was intercalated
with an additional 29 or 30 days, bringing the two versions once again into
harmony (364 X 3 = 354 X 3 + 30).
Two such cycles fit perfectly with the six years needed for one complete priestly cycle. The order of the priestly courses was originally determined by lot, and is laid out in 1 Chr. 24:7-18 as follows:
(1) Jehoiarib (spelled ‘Joiarib’ in the Qumran texts)
(2) Jedaiah
(3) Harim
(4) Seorim
(5) Malchijah (sometimes spelled Malachijah in the Qumran texts)
(6) Mijamin
(7) Hakkoz
(8) Abijah
(9) Jeshua
(10) Shecaniah
(11) Eliashib
(12) Jakim
(13) Huppah
(14) Jeshebeab
(15) Bilgah
(16) Immer
(17) Hezir
(18) Happizzez
(19) Pethahiah
(20) Jehezkel
(21) Jachin
(22) Gamul
(23) Delaiah
(24) Maaziah (often spelled Moaziah in the Qumran texts)
The Qumran calendars refer to the same names, but vary the order by beginning the cycle with Gamul instead of Jehoiarib. Apparently the reason for this change is that the list as given in 1 Chronicles began the rotation with Jehoiarib in the autumn.
The Qumran cycle begins in Nisan (March-April), a vernal New Year. The different beginning derives, as might be expected, from an understanding of the Creation narrative.
The Creation happened in the spring; thus an eternal order based on the Creation must of necessity begin at that time. The vernal New Year meant that the priestly cycle would begin with Gamul.
22. Priestly Courses I (4Q321) (Plate 6)
The first part of Mishmarot B delineates the equivalences between the solar and
the lunisolar calendars. It also preserves information on the ‘astronomical
observance’ of the moon which apparently acted as a check on the tabulated lunar
month. The observance ascertained whether or not the full moon was waning at the
proper rate, normally confirming the calculation of the day on which that month
would end, and, concomitantly, when the subsequent one would begin.
Fragment 1 preserves the equivalences starting with the seventh month of the first year and ending with the second month of the fourth year. Fragment 2 begins with the fifth month of the sixth year and completes the cycle. Between the two fragments we learn how the intercalation of the lunisolar calendar was carried out at the end of the third year (by the solar calendar’s reckoning; according to the lunisolar reckoning, after the first month of the fourth) and at the end of the sixth year.
The remaining portions of Fragment 2 describe the six-year cycle of
First Days (of the months) and festivals in terms of the course to which they
fall.
Translation
Fragment 1Column 1
(1) [on the first of Jedaiah on the twelfth of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the second of Abi[jah, on] the twe[nty-fifth of the eighth (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the third (2) of Mijamin, on the seventeenth] of it (i.e., of solar month eight). (The next lunar month ends) on the third of Jakim ninth (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the fourth (3) of Shecaniah, on the eleventh of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the fifth day of Immer, on the twenty-third of the ten[th (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the sixth day of J]eshebeab, (4) [on the tenth of] it. (The next lunar month ends) on the [si]xth of Jehezkel, on the twenty-second of the eleventh (solar) month. [Lunar observation takes place on the sabbath of] Pethahiah, (5) [on the ninth of it.] (The next lunar month ends) on the first of joiarib, on the twenty-second of the twelfth (solar) month. [Lunar observation takes place on the second of Delaiah, (6) [on the ninth of it. The] secon[d] (year): The first lunar month ends on the seco[n]d of Malachiah, on the twentie[th of the first (solar) month.] Lunar observation takes place on (7) [the third of Harim, on the seventh] of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the fourth of Jeshua, on the twentieth of the second (solar) month. [Lunar observation takes place on the fifth of Hakkoz, (8) on the seventh of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the fifth of Huppah, on the nineteenth of the third (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the sixth of [E]1[iashib,] on the si[xth of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the sabba]th of Happizzez,
Column 2
(1) [on the eighteenth of the the fourth (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the first of Immer, on the fifth] of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the first of [Gamul, on the seventeenth of the fifth (solar) month. (2) Lunar observation takes place on the second of Je]hezk[el, on the fourth of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the third of Jeda]iah, on the [seventeenth of the sixth month. Lunar observation takes place on the fourth of] (3) Maaziah, on the fourth of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the fou[rth of Mijamin, on the fifteenth] of the seventh month. Lunar observation takes place on the fifjth of Seorim, on the third] (4) of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the sixth of Shecaniah, on the fifteenth of the eighth (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the sabbath of Abijah, on the second of it. [(The next lunar month ends) on the sabbath of Bilgah,] (5) on the fourteenth of the ninth (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the [first of Huppah, on the first] of the ninth (solar) month. A second lun[ar observation] takes place on the third of [Hezir, on the thirty-] (6) first o[f it. (The next lunar month ends) on the] second of Pethahiah, on the this[teenth of the tenth (solar) month.] Lunar observation takes place on the fourt[h of ja]chin, on the ninete[enth of it.] (7) [(The next lunar month ends) on the third of Delai]ah, on the twelfth of the eleven[th (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the sixth of Joiar[ib,] on the twentynin[ th of i]t. [(The next lunar month ends) on the fifth of Harim,] (8) on the twe[lf]th of the twelfth (solar) month. Lunar observ[ation] takes place on the sabbath [of] Mijamin, on the twenty-eighth, on the [twenty-fourth [of the of it. The third (year): (The next lunar month ends) on [the sixth of Hakkoz, on the tenth...]
Column 3
(3) [on the seventh of the fifth (solar) month. Lunar observat]ion takes place on the first of Ha[rim, on the twen[ty-I [fourth] of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the sabbath of Mala[chiah, on the seventh of the sixth (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the second of Hakkoz, on the twenty-third of it. (4) (The next lunar month ends) on the first of Jeshua, on the fifth] of the seventh (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the fourth of Eliashib, on the tw[enty]- second [of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the third of Huppah, on the fifth of the eighth (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the fifth (5) of Bilgah, on the twenty-first in it. (The next lunar month ends) on the fourth of Hezir, on] the fourth of the ninth (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the sabbath of jeh[ezkel, on the twenty-first of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the sixth of Jachin, on the third of the tenth (solar) month. (6) Lunar observation takes place on the first of Maaziah, on the sixteenth of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the sabbath of Jedaiah, on the second of the eleventh (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place [on the third of Seorim, on the nineteenth of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the second (7) of Mijamin, on the second of the twelfth (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the fourth of Abijah, on the eighteenth of it. The fourth (year): (The next lunar month ends) on the fourth of Shecan[iah, on the first of the first (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the sixth] (8) [of Jakim, on the seventeenth of the] first (solar) month. (The next lunar month ends) on the Sabbath of Pethahiah, on the thirtieth of the second (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the first of Hez[ir, on the seventeenth of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the first of Deliah, on the ninth...]
Fragment 2
Column 1
(1) [Lun]ar observation takes place on the first [of Bilga]h, on the [twenty-] four[th] of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the Sabbath of Hezir, on the seven[th of the sixth (solar) month.] (2) [Lunar observation takes place on the second of Pethahiah,] on the twenty-third of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the first of Jachin, on the fifth of the seventh (,solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the fourth (3) [of Delaiah, on the twenty-second] of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the third of Joiarib, on the fifth of the eighth (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the fifth of Harim, (4) [on the sixteenth of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the fourth of Malachiah, on the fourth of the ninth (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the Sabbath of Abijah, on the (5) [twenty-] first [of it. (The next lunar month ends) on the sixth of Je]shua, [on] the third of the tenth (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the first of Jakim, on the nineteenth of [it.] (6) [(The next lunar month ends) on the Sabbath of Jeshebeab, on the second of the elev]nth (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the thi[rd of Immer, on the nineteenth of it. (7) [(The next lunar month ends) on the second of Happizzez, on the second of the twelfth (solar) month. Lunar observation takes place on the fourth of Jehezkel, on the eighteenth (8) [of it. The first [year: the first month (begins) [in Del]aiah. In Ma[aziah] (9) [is the Passover. In Jedaiah is the Lifting of the Omer. The second month (begins) in] Jedaiah [In Seorim is the Second Passover. The third month (begins) in Hakkoz.]
Column 2
(1) In Je[sh]ua is the Festival of We[eks. The fourth month (begins) in Elia]shib. The fifth month (begins) in Bilgah. The sixth month (begins) in Jehezkel.] The seven[th month (begins) (2) in Maaziah. That day is the Day of Remembrance. In Joiarib is the Day of Atonement. In Jedaiah is the [Festival of] Booths. The eighth month (begins) [in Seorim.] (3) The ninth month (begins) in Jeshua. The tenth month (begins) in Huppah. The eleventh month (begins) in Hezir. The twelfth month (begins) in Gamul. (4) The second (year): the first month (begins) in Jediah. In Seorim is the Passover. In [Mi]jamin is the Lifting of the Omer. The second month (begins) in Mi[jamin. In Abijah] (5) is the [Second] Passover. [The third month (begins) in Eliashib,] and in Hu[ppah] is the Feast of Weeks. [The fourth month (begins) in Bil]gah. The fifth month (begins) in Pethahiah. (6) [The sixth month (begins) in Maaziah. The seventh month (begins) in Seorim. That day is the Daly of Remembrance. In Malachiah [is the Day of Atonement. In Mijamin (7) [is the Festival of Booths. The eighth month (begins) in Abijah. The ninth month (begins) in] Huppah. The tenth month (begins) in Hezir. The eleventh] month (begins) in Jachin. (8) The [twe]lfth [mon]th (begins) [in Jedaiah The] third (year): The first month (begins) in [Mijam]in. In Abijah is (9) the Passover. In Shecan[ia]h is the Lifting of the Omer. The seco[nd] month (begins) in Shecaniah. In Jakim is the [Se]cond Passover. The third month (begins) in Bilgah. In [He]zir is
Column 3
(1) [the Festival] of Week[s. The [four]th month (begins) in [Pethahiah. The fifth month (begins) in Delaiah. The sixth month (begins) in Se]orim. [The seventh month (begins) in Abijah. That day is the D]ay of [Remembrance. In Jeshua] is the D[ay of Atonement.] (2) [In Shecani]ah is the Festival of [B]ooths. [The] eig[hth month (begins) in Jakim. The ninth month (begins) in Hezir. The tenth month (begins) in] Jachin. The ele[venth month (begins) in] Joiarib [The twelfth] (3) month (begins) in [Mijlamin. [The fourth (year): the first month (begins) in Shecaniah. In Jakim is the Passover. In Jeshebeab is the Waving of the Omer. The second] (4) [month] (begins) in Jeshebeab. In [Immer is the Second Passover. The] third month (begins) [in Pethah]iah. [In Jachin is the Festival of Weeks. The fourth month (begins) in Delaiah] (5) [The fifth month (begins)] in Harim. [The sixth month (begins) in Abijah. The seventh month (begins)] in Jaki[m. That is the Daly of [Remembrance]. In H[uppah is the Day of Atonement. In Jeshebeab is the Festival] (6) [of Booths.] The eighth month (begins) in Immer. [The ninth month (begins) in Jachin. The tenth month (begins) in joiari]b. The elev[en]th [month (begins)] in Ma[lachiah. The twelfth month (begins)] (7) [in Shecaniah.] The fifth (year): the fi[rst month (begins) in Bilgah. In Immer] is the Passover. In Happ[izzez is] the Waving of the Omer. The sec[ond month (begins) in Happizz]ez. In Jehezkel is (8) [the Second Passover. The third month (begins) in [Delaiah. In Joiarib is the Festival of Weeks. The fou[rth month (begins)] in Harim. The fifth month (begins) in Hakk[oz. The sixth month (begins) in Jakim. The seventh month (begins) (9) in Immer. That day is the Day of Rememb[rance. In Hezir is the Day of Atonement. In] Happizzez is the Festival of Booths. The eighth month (begins) in [Je]hezkel. The ninth month (begins) in joiar[i]b. The tenth...
Column 4
(4) [The sixth month (begins) in Immer. The seventh month (begins) in Jehezkel That day is the Day of Remembrance. In Jachin is the Day of Atonement. In Gamul is] the Festival of (5) [Booths. The eighth month (begins) in Maaziah. The ninth month (begins) in Malachiah. The tenth month (begins) in Jeshua The eleven[th mo]nth (begins) in Huppah. (6) [The twelfth month (begins) in Happizzez.]
23. Priestly Courses 11 (4Q320)
Relying largely on ciphers, Fragment 1 of this manuscript preserves three
columns. These portions provide the first three years of the correspondence
between the lunisolar calendar and the solar calendar. One can observe that the
lunisolar calendar loses ten days per year vis-a-vis the solar calendar, so that
over the period covered by these columns it falls behind a full 30 days.
As
noted above, it would never fall behind by more. A month was intercalated every
three years to bring the two calendars back into alignment.
Translation
Fragment 1
Column 1
(1)... to show it forth from the East (2)... in the midst of Heaven, in the foundation of (3)... from evening until morning. On the fourth, on the sabbath, (4) the sons of Gamul (shall serve), in the first month, in the first (5) year. (6) [The fifth day of the course of Jedai]ah = the twenty-ninth day (of the lunar month) = the thirtieth day (of the solar month) in it (i.e., in the first month of the solar year). (7) [The Sabbath of Hak]koz (i.e., when the course rotates in; it does not serve until the following sabbath) = the thirtieth = the thirtieth in the second month. (8) [The second of Elia]shib = the twenty-ninth = the twenty-ninth in the third month. (9) [The third of Bilg]ah = the thirtieth = the twenty-ninth in the fourth month (Note: this is a scribal error; the correct equivalence is the twenty-eighth). (10) [The third of Petha]hiah = the twenty-ninth = the twenty-seventh in the fifth month. (11) [The sixth of Deliah] = the thirtieth = the twenty-seventh in the sixth month. (12) [The Sabbath of Seori]m = the twenty-ninth = the twenty-fifth in the seventh month. (13) [The second of Abijah = the thirtieth] = the twenty-fifth in the eighth month. (14) [The third of Jakim = the twenty- [nin]th = the twenty-fourth in the ninth month.
Column 2
(1) The fifth of Immer = the thirtieth = the twenty-third in the tenth month. (2) The sixth of Jehezkel =the twentyninth = the twenty-second in the eleven[th] month. (3) The first in Jehoiarib = the thirtieth = the twenty-second in the twelfth month. (4) The second year: (5) The second of Malakiah (sic!) =the twenty-ninth = the twentieth of the first month. (6) The fourth of Jeshua = the thirtieth = the twentieth of the second month. (7) The fifth of Huppah = the twenty-ninth = the nineteenth of [the sixth month.] (8) The Sabbath of Happizzez = the thirtieth = the eighteenth of the fou[rth month.] (9) The first of Gamul = the twenty-[ninth = the seventeenth of the fifth month.] (10) The third of Jedaiah = the thirtieth = [the seventeenth of the sixth month.] (11) The fourth of Mijamin = the twenty-[nin]th [= the fifteenth of the seventh month.] (12) The sixth of Shecaniah = the thin[ieth = the fifteenth of the eighth month.] (13) The Sabbath of Bil[gah = the twenty-ninth = the fourteenth of the ninth month.] (14) [The second of Pethahiah = the thirtieth = the thirteenth of the tenth month.]
Column 3
(1) [The third of Delaiah = the twenty-ninth = the twelfth of the eleventh month. (2) The fifth of Harim = the thirtieth = the twelfth of the twelfth month. (3) The third year: (4) The fifth of Hakkoz = the twenty-ninth = the twentieth of the first month. (5) The first of Jakim = the thirtieth = the tenth of the second month. (6) The second of Immer = the twenty-ninth = the ninth of the third month. (7) The fourth of Jehezkel = the thirtieth = the eighth of the fourth month. (8) The fifth of Maaziah = the twenty-ninth = the seventh of the fifth month. (9) The Sabbath of Malakiah = the thirtieth = the seventh of the sixth month.] (10) The first of Je[shua = the twenty-ninth = the fifth of the seventh month.] (11) The third of Huppah = the thirtieth = the fifth of the eighth month. (12) The fourth of Hezir = the twenty-ninth = the fourth of the ninth month. (13) The sixth of Jachin = the thirtieth = the third of the tenth month. (14) The Sabbath of Jedaiah = the twenty-ninth = the second of the eleventh month. (15) [The second of] Mijamin = the thirtieth = day [two] of the twelfth month.
24. Priestly Courses III - Aemilius Kills (Manuscripts A-E - 4Q323-324ª-B) (Plate 8)
Though extremely fragmentary, this series of manuscripts provides another record of the proper rotation of priestly courses in the sexennial cycle. This is fairly straightforward and similar to the two preceding ones, though in this one no attempt is made at lunisolar harmonization. It is worth mentioning, too, that its Hebrew is closer to that of early Rabbinic literature than many texts at Qumran.
But what is unique about these fragments is that they belong to a select group of Qumran documents mentioning identifiable historical personages, as the Nahum Commentary does with Antiochus Epiphanes and Demetrius and the Paean to King Jonathan below appears to do with Alexander Jannaeus (c. 104-76 BC).
In this text, amid over a dozen references to historical events commemorated in
the record of rotations, these figures include: ‘Aemilius’ (Aemilius Scaurus,
Pompey’s general in Syria and Palestine), ‘Shelamzion’ (Salome Alexandra, d. 67
BC - Phariseeizing widow of Alexander Jannaeus), her eldest son Hyrcanus II
(executed in 30 BC on Herod’s orders also a Pharisee) and possibly Shelamzion’s
younger son Aristobulus (d. 49 BC, poisoned on his way back from Rome to regain
his kingdom by supporters of Pompey - a Sadducee).
In addition, too, in Manuscript E, the text possibly contains a reference to John Hyrcanus, Alexander Jannaeus’ father (c. 134-104 BC), though Hyrcanus II was also known as John. The text also contains fairly negative references to ‘Gentiles’ and ‘Arabs’, which increase the sense of its authenticity.
Like others, this text has been known since the 1950s, but for some reason,
never published. Withholding it is really quite inexplicable, because we have
here a view, however tenuous, of one of the most crucial periods in the Second
Temple period. Scaurus was Pompey’s adjutant at the time of the conquest of
Jerusalem in 63 BC. After it fell and Pompey attached it to Syria, he was left
behind as governor.
In turn, Scaurus was closely connected with Herod’s father Antipater, who became
one of the first Roman procurators in Jerusalem. At one point Scaurus led a
campaign on his behalf against the Arabian king at Petra, a locale Paul also
refers to as ‘Arabia’ when describing his own sojourn there in Gal. 1:17.
Antipater, who was the intermediary between Hyrcanus II and the Romans, probably began his rise some time earlier under Shelamzion and her Pharisee supporters (War 1.110-114). Of Greco-Idumaean background and married to an Arab (a relative of this same Arab king), Antipater connived at Hyrcanus’ survival, played a key role in Aristobulus’ discomfiture, and through his intimacies with Pompey and Scaurus, and Mark Antony thereafter, placed his son Herod in a position both to destroy the Maccabeans and succeed them.
For his part, Aristobulus was more hot-headed and popular than his accommodating
brother
Hyrcanus, and appears to have been the darling of the nationalist-minded
Jerusalem crowd. It was the split between these two - and Antipater’s adept
exploitation of it - that set the stage for the Roman entrance into and
occupation of the country and the destruction of the Maccabean family.
So ended that independence achieved a century before with Judas Maccabee’s legendary acts. Aristobulus was taken by Pompey to Rome in chains, probably to participate in his triumph. The movement that supported him may be seen as both ‘nationalist’ and ‘Sadducean’, while Hyrcanus II and his mother Shelamzion (Lines 4-6 of Fragment 2) are part of a more compromising, less nationalistic, Pharisaic one, willing to live with foreign intervention in the country - in particular, the appointment of high priests.
Seemingly written from the perspective of those who supported Aristobulus II,
the present text is hostile to ‘Arabs’ (with whom Antipater and Hyrcanus were
very involved), hostile to Shelamzion, under whom the accommodation began,
hostile to Hyrcanus II, and without question, hostile to Scaurus and those
‘Gentiles’ associated with him in the killings he is overtly accused of being
involved in (Lines 4 and 8 of Manuscript D Fragment 2 and Line 2 of Manuscript A
Fragment 3). Its point of view can most certainly be regarded as ‘zealous’, if
not ‘Zealot’.
This is the tantalizing nature of the materials before us. As in the Nahum
Commentary, the events recorded would appear to be past history, so much so that
they have had a chance to penetrate the commemorative tradition of a zealous
lower priesthood holding these memories dear probably not an insubstantial time
later. The infractions imputed to Aemilius and the ‘leader of Gentiles’ have
burned deep into its consciousness.
After Mark Antony’s suppression of the revolutionary activity by Aristobulus’ two sons Alexander and Antigonus in the next generation, who like John the Baptist after them were beheaded; the priests officiating at the Temple all owed their positions to Roman and Herodian power. They would not and could not have been interested in a literature of this kind. Where, then, could a text accusing Roman governors of murder have been preserved? Only at a revolutionary outpost such as Qumran.
What period could this have been and when did this more ‘purist’ brand of Sadducees - who apparently ultimately metamorphose into ‘Messianic Sadducees’ and depending on particular scholars’ points of view have been variously called ‘Essenes’, ‘Zealots’, or ‘Jewish Christians’ - write or preserve such materials? We are certainly not in the formative Maccabean period, nor any period linked to personalities like Jonathan or Simon Maccabee, or even Alexander Jannaeus, whom proponents of ‘the Essene theory’ have previously and tendentiously identified as the dramatis personae - most notably the Wicked Priest of Qumran allusion.
This is consistent and in line with our reading of other Qumran materials,
particularly the Testament
of Kohath to be discussed in Chapter 5, which condemns foreign involvement and
collaboration with
foreign invaders in the matter of the priesthood. It is also consistent with our
reading of the complex
development of the Sadducee movement and a split in this movement between
nationalist and
collaborating wings coincident with some of the events being outlined here.
One pro-Aristobulus, which could easily pass for ‘zealot’, moves in the first century AD into an ‘opposition’ and probably even ‘Messianic’ phase; another, more compromising, owed its existence and the collaborating nature of its ethos to the rise of Herod, who with Antony was responsible for the beheading of Aristobulus’ equally nationalistic and Sadducean son Antigonus 25 years later.
The second of these, who Josephus confirms ‘were dominated in all things by the Pharisees’ (Ant. 18. 17), are the familiar ones pictured by him, the Gospels, and to a certain extent Talmudic sources. They are probably best called Herodian Sadducees. The Talmud calls them ‘Boethusians’ (i.e. Boethusian Sadducees after the name of a priest from Egypt Herod appointed while also marrying his daughter-another instance of the multiplication of wives by the ruler so roundly condemned at Qumran in documents like The Temple Scroll and Damascus Document.)
Whatever else can be said of these unmistakable references to Aemelius’
‘killing’ - probably while governor, though possibly in the war leading up to
this - and to ‘Hyrcanus’ rebellion’ (Line 6 Fragment 2 Manuscript A - almost
certainly against his brother Aristobulus), they reveal the text to be hostile
to Hyrcanus, hostile to the party of collaboration, and hostile ultimately to
the Herodian takeover (perceived as both ‘Gentile’ and abetted by ‘Gentiles’).
This approach is consistent with the antiforeign, xenophobic, ‘zealot’, yet
pro-Temple - even James-like - orientation of the two Letters on Works
Righteousness and the Paean to King Jonathan below.
The conclusion appears to be that Qumran represents the archive of a
pro-Maccabean nationalist priesthood, one in sympathy with the aims of Judas,
John Hyrcanus, Alexander Jannaeus, Aristobulus II, Antigonus, etc., but not
Salome Alexandra, nor her son Hyrcanus II with their Pharisaic tendencies.
The whole sitz-im-leben for these, including ‘opposition’ (even ‘Messianic’) and establishment Sadducees, as well as for the two Letters on Works Righteousness and the Paen for King Jonathan was already set forth in R. H. Eisenman’s Maccabees, Zadokite, Christians and Qumran: a New Hypothesis of Qumran Origins (E. J. Brill) without benefit of these texts in 1983. For more on this subject, see our discussions of these Letters on Works Righteousness in Chapter 6 and the Brontologion and Paean to King Jonathan in Chapter 8.
The reference to ‘a Jewish man’ or ‘Jew’ (ish Yehudi) in Manuscript D Fragment 4
parallels the similar ones in the Persian Court materials in Chapter 3 and to ‘a
Jewish woman’ below. Again, it shows that this manner of looking at Jews as a
distinct people, not as Israelites or in some archaizing tribal notation, was
already well in the process of taking hold.
Translation
Manuscript AFragment 1
(1)... on the tenth [of the sixth month (i.e., of the second year of the priestly rotation)...] (2) [on the fourteenth of it, the arriva]l of (the priestly course of) Jedaiah; on the sixtee[nth of it... on the twenty-first] (3) [of it the arrival of (the priestly course of) Harim; on the twenty]-seventh of the [sixth] month... (4) he returned... (5) [Gen]tiles and also... (6)... [b]fitter of spirit... (7) prisoners...
Fragment 2
(1) [...to] give him honor among the Arab[s...] (2) [on the fou]rth [day] of this course’s service... (3) which is the twentieth of the... month... (4) foundation, Shelamzion came... (5) to greet... (6) Hyrcanos rebelled [against Aristobulus?...] (7) to greet...
Fragment 3
(2) [...the leader of the Gen]ntiles murdered... (3) [on the fi]fth [day] of (the service of the priestly course of) Jedaiah...
Fragment 4
(1)... according to the wi[ll of...]
Manuscript BFragment 1
(1)... on the nin[th of the eighth month (i.e., of the second year of the priestly rotation), the arrival of (the priestly course of) Shecaniah...] (2) On day... of (the service of the priestly course of Shecaniah, [...On the sixteenth of it (i.e., the eighth month), the arrival of (the priestly course of) Eliashib]; (3) [on the twenty-thi]rd of it, the arrival of (the priestly course of) Jakim; on the second (day of the service of the priestly course of) Jakim ,... ; and on the fo[urth] day of (the service of the priestly course of) Jakim...] (4) the second day of the ni[nth] month...
Fragment 2(1) [...the four]th [day] of (the service of the priestly course of) Hez[i]r, [this day is the fi]rst (day) of the te[nth month (i.e., of the second year of the priestly rotation);] (2) [on the fourth day of it (i.e., the tenth month), the arrival of (the priestly course of) Happi]zzez; on the eleventh of it, [the arrival of (the priestly course of) Pethahiah (3) [on the eighteenth of it, the arriv]al of (the priestly course of) Jehezkel; on the twee[ty-fifth of it, the arrival] (4) [of (the priestly course of) Jachin... Jach]in, the se[r]vice... (5) [on the second of it (i.e., the eleventh month)], the arrival of [(the priestly course of) Gamul...]
Fragment 3
(1)... which is... (5) me[n...] (6) and against Ar[istobulus...] (7) [and] they [sa]id... (8) seventy... (9) which is...
Manuscript C
Fragment 1
(1) [on the twenty-third of it (i.e., the fifth month of the fifth year of the priestly rotation)], the arrival of [(the priestly course of) Eliashib; on the thirtieth of it, the arrival of (the priestly course of) Jakim;] (2) after the sabbath, while Jakim is serving, this is the fir]st of the six[th month; on the seventh of it, the arrival of (the priestly course of) Huppah;] (3) [on the four]teenth of it, [the arrival of (the priestly course of) Jeshebeab;]... on the twen[ty-first] (4) [of it, the arrival of (the priestly course of) Bilg]ah; on the twenty-[eighth of i]t, the arrival of (the priestly course of) Imm[er; day] (5) [four (of the service of the priestly course of) Immer is the fi]rst day of the seventh month; on the four[t]h of it, the arrival of (the priestly course of) He[zir;] (6) [the sixth day of] (the service of the priestly course of) Hezir, which is the tenth day of the seventh month, this is [the Day of Atonement;] (7)... for the Covenant; on the eleventh day of the seventh month, the arrival of (the priestly course of) [Happizzez...]
Manuscript D
Fragment 1
Column 2
(5) day... [on the twenty-first] (6) [of i]t (i.e., of the ninth month of the fifth year of the priestly rotation), the arrival of (the priestly course of) S[eor]im; on the twenty-eighth of it, the arrival of (the priestly course of) Malchi[jah;] (7) the fourth day of (the service of the priestly course of) Malchijah is the first day of the tenth month. (8) On the F[ourt]h day of the te[n]th month, the arrival of (the priestly course of) Mijamin; on the eleventh of it, the arrival of (the priestly course of) Hakkoz;]
Fragment 2
(1) [...on the] twenty-(2) [first of it (i.e., of the sixth month of the sixth year of the priestly rotation), the arrival of (the priestly course of) Pethahiah; on the twenty-eigh]th (3) [of it, the arrival of (the priestly course of) Jehezkel; on the first (or, the second; or, the third) day of (the service of the priestly course of) J]ehezkel, which is (4) [the twenty-ninth (or, the thirtieth; or, the thirty-first) day of the sixth month, the Day] of Aemilius’ Massacre (literally, ‘Aemilius killed’ as below); (5) [the fourth day of (the service of the priestly course of) Jehezkel is the first day of] the seventh [mon]th;
(6) [on the fourth of it (i.e., of the seventh month), the arrival of the (the priestly course of) Jachin; on the eleventh of it, the arr]iv[al of] (the priestly course of) Gamin; (7) [...the fourth day of (the service of the priestly course of) Gamul, whi]ch is (8) [the fifteenth day of the seventh month, is the Festival of Booths; on that day,] Aemilius killed...
Fragment 3
(2) [on the twenty-eighth of it (i.e., of the ninth month of the sixth year of the priestly rotation), the arrival of (the priestly course of) Je]shua; the four[th] day of [(the service of the priestly course of) Jeshua is the first day of the] (3) [tenth month... wh]ich is the ten[th...]
Fragment 4(1)... a Jewish man...
Manuscript E
Fragment 1
Column 1
(1)... the hi[g]h priest... (2) Johanan to bring the...
Column 2
(2) from... (5) a man... (7) Shelamzion...
25. Priestly Courses IV (4Q325)
This manuscript consists of three fragments, the two largest of which are
transliterated here. These fragments belong to the first year rotation in the
sexennial priestly cycle. The text records which priestly course is responsible
for each Sabbath and festival in the period covered.
Fragment 1 concerns the
period from Passover (1/ 14) until the first Sabbath of the third month.
Fragment 2 apparently begins with 5/3 and the Festival of New Wine (heretofore
known from the Temple Scroll, but not listed in the Bible or most other calendar
texts). The last date indicated in Fragment 2 is 6/23, on which the Festival of
Wood Offering began.
Translation
Fragment 1(1) [on Tues]day; on the eighteenth the Sabbath fa[lls to Jehoiarib...] (2) [on Tuesday] in the evening. On the twenty-fifth the Sabbath falls to Jedaiah; also during that course’s duties falls (3) [the Festival of] the Barley on the twenty-sixth. After the Sabbath, the beginning of the sec[ond] month falls to (4) Jedaiah, [on Fri]day. On the second is the Sabbath of Harim. On the ninth is the Sabbath of (5) [Seorim.] On the sixteenth is the Sabbath of Malchijah. On the twenty-third i[s] (6) [the Sabbath] of [Mi]jamin. On the thirtieth is the Sabbath of Hakkoz. The beginning of (7) the third month, after the Sabbath...
Fragment 2(1) [the fifth (month) falls to Bilgah. On the second is the Sabbath of I]mmer. On the th[ir]d, (2) [after the Sabbath, is the Festival of New Wine. On] the ninth is the Sabbath of Hezir. (3) [On the sixteenth is the Sabbath of Happizzez. On the twen]ty-third is the Sabbath of (4) [Pethahiah. On the thirtieth is the Sabbath of Jehezkel. The firs]t of the sixth month is (5) [after the Sabbath. On the seventh is the Sabbath of Jachin. On the fo]urteenth (6) [is the Sabbath of Gamul. On the twentyfirst is the Sabbath of Delaiah. On the twenty-]second (7) [is the Festival of Oil. On the twenty-third is the Festival of W]ood [Offering]...
26. Heavenly Concordances (OTOT - 4Q319A)
As we have seen, the Qumran calendrical texts are based upon an understanding of
the Creation narrative of Genesis. No portion is more significant for these
texts than Gen. 1:14, which the authors might have understood as ‘Let there be
lights in the expanse of heaven to separate the days from the night, and let
them be for “signs” (otot), and for festivals and for days and for years.’
Given the belief that this verse had to do with the proper keeping of God’s holy festivals and, more generally, with keeping track of time, what did the Qumran authors believe was meant by the term otot? Clearly the usual understanding of modern scholars of the text - that the term refers to portents of extraordinary events and divine judgements and to phenomena prognosticating changes in the weather - makes little sense when defining a natural rhythm, the basis of a calendar. Rather than the extraordinary, one then seeks the ordinary.
The author of the present text understood ‘sign’ to refer to a year in which the
sun and moon were once again perfectly aligned at the year’s beginning - that
is, a year in which the vernal equinox coincided with a new moon. According to
the more general scheme of the Qumran calendrical texts that could only happen
in Years 1 and 4 of the six year cycle of priestly rotations. Since Years 3 and
C were intercalated at year’s end, Years 1 and 4 did begin with the heavenlies
once again in temporary agreement.
The years were named, as was usual in Qumran parlance, after the priestly courses; because the years were always Years 1 and 4 in the cycle, only two priestly courses give their names to otot years: Shecaniah and Gamul. Further, the cycle begins with Shecaniah. This oddity results because at the Creation there had been no prior intercalation.
Accordingly the reference is to the course in service when intercalation was first necessary in Year 3. The purpose of the present text is to record all such concordant years until the cycle begins to repeat, and to align that cycle with both the seven-year cycle of sabbatical years and the ‘jubilees’ that measured longer periods of time. An otot cycle of 294 years emerges (6 x 49).
The text also counts all the otot years and takes special notice when such a year coincides with a sabbatical year. It names each special year by the relevant priestly course and also names each jubilee (in a more complicated way, however, as explained below). But in constructing this alignment of the sexennial priestly rotation with the jubilees, the text encounters a basic difficulty: 49 is not precisely divisible by 6.
The otot years will therefore not always fall at the beginning and end of jubilee periods. As a consequence the text uses ‘jubilee’ in two slightly different senses. The term refers first to that period (only approximating to 49 years) that aligns with the cycle of otot. We can call this the ‘jubilee of the otot’. At other times the term denotes the actual period of 49 years. At the end of 294 years the differences are made good as Table 2 illustrates:
The text relates the ‘jubilee of the otot’ to the actual 49-year jubilee in two
ways. The first is through
its reference to the ‘sign of the conclusion of the jubilee’. Only once, in
2:18-19, does the author
actually give this special sign a name. In that example, the text says, ‘The
sign of the conclusion of the fifth jubilee falls during (the priestly course
of) Jeshebeab.’
The meaning is that Jeshebeab is the course Calendrical Texts and Priestly Courser 129 1 and 4 in the cycle, only two priestly courses give their names to otot years: Shecaniah and Gamul. Further, the cycle begins with Shecaniah. This oddity results because at the Creation there had been no prior intercalation. Accordingly the reference is to the course in service when intercalation was first necessary in Year 3.
The purpose of the present text is to record all such concordant years until the
cycle begins to repeat, and to align that cycle with both the seven-year cycle
of sabbatical years and the ‘jubilees’ that measured longer periods of time. An
otot cycle of 294 years emerges (6 x 49). The text also counts all the otot
years and takes special notice when such a year coincides with a sabbatical
year.
It names each special year by the relevant priestly course and also names each jubilee (in a more complicated way, however, as explained below). But in constructing this alignment of the sexennial priestly rotation with the jubilees, the text encounters a basic difficulty: 49 is not precisely divisible by 6. The otot years will therefore not always fall at the beginning and end of jubilee periods. As a consequence the text uses ‘jubilee’ in two slightly different senses. The term refers first to that period (only approximating to 49 years) that aligns with the cycle of otot.
We can call this the ‘jubilee of the otot’. At other times the term denotes the actual period of 49 years. At the end of 294 years the differences are made good as Table 2 illustrates:
The text relates the ‘jubilee of the otot’ to the actual 49-year jubilee in two
ways. The first is through its reference to the ‘sign of the conclusion of the
jubilee’. Only once, in 2:18-19, does the author actually give this special sign
a name. In that example, the text says, ‘The sign of the conclusion of the fifth
jubilee falls during (the priestly course of) Jeshebeab.’
The meaning is that Jeshebeab is the course serving in the temple at the end of the fifth actual jubilee - that is, as year 196 (4 x 49) comes to an end. If the author had wished, he could have given the names of all the ‘signs of the conclusion of the jubilee’ (they are respectively Jedaiah, Mijamin, Shecaniah, Jeshebeab, Happizzez and Gamul).
The second way of relating the ‘jubilee of the otot’ to the actual 49-year
jubilee involves the names the
author gives to the jubilees. These names are always either Gamul or Shecaniah.
The writer
determined the name according to the sign ‘controlling’ the actual jubilee year.
Finally, the reader will note that the text never mentions a ‘first jubilee’,
even though it begins its recitation at the Creation. Instead, it counts only
Jubilees 2-7.
Presumably the explanation for this peculiarity lies in the septimal concept inherent in sabbatical years and 49-year jubilees. The author
wanted to emphasize the number seven. Since the priestly rotation in fact
required only six years to repeat, the only way to end on the number seven was
to begin counting with two.
Translation
Column 1(10)... its light on the fourth (day); on the sabba[th... (11) the] creation, on the fourth (day) of (the rotation of the priestly course of) Ga[mul, the sign of Shecaniah; in the fourth (year) the sign of Gamul; in the sabbatical year, the sig]n (12) [of Shecaniah; in the thi]rd (year) the sign of [Ga]mul; in the sixth (year), the sign of [Shecaniah; in the second, the sign of Ga]mul; (13) [in the fifth, the sig]n of Shecaniah; after the sabbatical year, the sign of Gam[ul; in the fourth, the sign of Shec]an[ia]h; (14) [in the sabbatical year, the sig]n of Gamul; in the third, the sign of Shecaniah; [in the sixth, the sign of Gam]ul; 0 5) [in the second, the sig]n of She[caniah]; in the fifth, the sign of Gamul; after the sabbatical ye]ar, the sign of (16) [Shecaniah; in the fou]rth, the sign of Gamul; in the sabbatical year, the sign of the con[elusion of the second jubilee. The signs of the [second] jubilee: (17) seventeen signs, of which [three] signs fall in a sabbatical year... the creation (18) [...the sig]n of Sheca[nia]h; in the third year the sign of Gamu[l; in the sixth, the sig]n of Shecaniah; (19) [in the second, the sign of Ga]mul; in the fifth, the sign of Shecaniah; after the sabb[atical year, the sign of Ga]mul;
Column 2
(1) [in the fourth, the sign of Shecaniah; in the sabbatical year, the sign of Gamul; in the third, the sign of Shecaniah;] (2) [in the sixth, the sign of Gamul; in the] sec[on]d, the sig[n of Shecaniah; in the fifth, the sign of Gamul;] (3) after the sabbatical ye]ar, the sign of Shecaniah; in the fou[rth, the sign of Gamul; in the sabbatical year, the sign] (4) of Shecaniah; in the thi]rd, the sign of Gamul; in the six[th the sign] of Shecani[ah; in the second, the sign of the conclusion] (5) of the thi[r]d jubilee. The signs of [the third] jubilee: six[teen signs,] of which (6) two signs fall in a sabbatical year. (A jubilee of) Shecaniah: [in the second year the sig]n of [Gam]ul; in the fifth, the sign of Shecaniah; (7) after the sabbatical year, the sig[n of Gamin; in the fourth, the sig]n of Shecaniah; in the sabbatical year, the sign (8) of Gamul; in the third, the sign [of Shecaniah; in the sixth, the sign of Ga]mul; in the second, the sign (9) of Shecaniah; in the fifth, the sign [of Gamin; after] the sabbatical year, the sign of Shecaniah; (10) in the fourth, the sign of Gamul; [in the sabbatical year, the sign of] Shecaniah; in the third, the sign of Gamul; (11) in the sixth, the sign of Shecan[iah; in the second, the sign of] Gamul; in the fifth, the sign of Shecaniah; (12) after the sabbatical year, the si[gn of the conclusion of the fourth jubilee. The signs] of the fourth [jubil]ee: seventeen signs, (13) of whi[ch] two signs fall in a sabbatical year. (A jubilee of) Sh[ecaniah:] in the fourth year the sign of Shecaniah; (14) [in the sabbatical] year the sign of Gamul; in the [third, the sign of Shecaniah; in the sixth, the sign of Gamul;] (15) in the seco[n]d, the sign of Shecaniah; in the fifth, the sign of Gamul; after the sabbatical year, the sign of Shecaniah;] (16) in the fourth, the sign of [Ga]mul; in the sabbatical [year, the sign of Shecaniah; in the third, the sign of Gamul;] (17) in the six[th, the si]gn of Sh[ecaniah; in the second, the sign of Gamul; in the fifth, the sign of Shecaniah;] (18) [after the] sabbatical year, the sign of Ga[mul; in the fourth, the sign of Shecaniah; in the sabbatical year, the sign of the conclusion] (19) [of the fifth [jubilee, falling] during (the priestly course of) Jeshebeab. [The signs of the fifth jubilee: sixteen signs, of which]
Column 3
(1) [three signs fall in a sabbatical year. (A jubilee of) Gamul: in the third year, the sign of Shecaniah; in the sixth, the sign] (2) [of Gamul; in the] second, the sign of Shecaniah; in the [fifth, the sign of Gamul; after the sabbatical] year, (3) [the sig]n of Shecaniah; in the fourth, the sign of Gam[ul; in the sabbatical year, the sign of Shecaniah;] in the third, (4) the sign of Gamul; in the sixth, the sign of Shecaniah; [in the second, the sign of] Gamul; (5) in the fi[ft]h, the sign of Shecaniah; after [the sabbatical year,] the sign of (6) Gamul; in the [fo]urth, the sign of Shecaniah; in the sabbatical [year, the sign of Gamul; in the] third, (7) the sign of [Shecaniah; in the sixth, the sign of the conclusion of the [sixth] jubi[lee. The signs (8) of the sixth] jubilee: si[xteen signs,] of which two signs fall in a [sabbatical year...] (9)... (10) And regarding the jubilee of Gamul: in the second year the sign of Shecaniah; in the fifth the sign of Gamul; after] (11) the sabbatical [year the sign of Shecaniah; in the fourth, the sign of Gamu[l; in the] sabbatical ye[ar] (12) [the sign of Shecaniah; in the third, the sign of] Gamul; in the sixth, the sig[n of Shecaniah;] (13) [in the] second, the sig[n of Gamul;] in the fifth, the sign of Shecaniah; [after] (14) the sabbatical yea[r, the sign of Ga]mul; in the fourth, the sign of Shecaniah; in the sabbatical 1 [year, the sign] (15) of Gamul; in the th[ir]d, the sign of Shecaniah; in the sixth, the sign of [Gamul;] (16) in the se[cond, the sign of Shecaniah;] in the fifth, the sign of the conclusion of [the] seventh jubil[ee.] (17) [The signs of the] seventh [jubilee:] sixteen signs, of which (18) [two signs] fall in a sabbatical year... sign of the j[u]bilees, the [y]ear of (the) jubilees according to the day[s of...] (19) in (the priestly course of) Mijamin, the third...
Notes
(22) Priestly Courses I (4Q321)
Previous Discussions: None. Photographs: PAM 43.328 and 43.329, ER 1355 and
1356. Note that for all the texts presented in this Chapter, a knowledge of the
underlying systems makes restorations virtually certain.
(23) Priestly Courses 11 (4Q320)
Previous Discussion: J. T. Milik, ‘Le travail d’édition des manuscrits du désert
du Juda’, Volume du Congrés Strasbourg 1956 (SVT 4) (Brill, 1957) 25.
Photograph: PAM 43.330, ER 1357. (24) Priestly Courses III - Aemilius Kills
(4Q323-324ª-B)
Previous Discussions: J. T. Milik, ‘Le travail’, 25-6; idem, Years, 73; B. Z.
Wacholder and M. Abegg, A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea
Scrolls, Fascicle One (Washington, DC: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1991).
Photographs: PAM 43.335, 43.336 and 43.338, ER 1362, 1363 and 1365.
(25) Priestly Courses IV (4Q325)
Previous Discussions: None. Photographs: PAM 42.332 and 43.333 (top), ER 1359
and 1360.
(26) Heavenly Concordances (OTOT; 4Q319)
Previous Discussions: Milik, Books, 63-4. Photographs: PAM 43.283 and 43.284, ER
1319 and 1320.
