PART ONE

EVIDENCE OF CAREENINGS OF THE GLOBE
 

I - HISTORICAL WRITINGS
 

FROM early Jewish history, as recorded in the Bible, comes down to us a tale of a great deluge, a tale familiar to most civilized peoples.*

All mountains were covered by water. Noah and his family-together with two of every species of bird, beast, and reptile-were saved in an Ark which landed on Mt. Ararat in Asia Minor. The highest elevation of this mountain is 17,100 feet above sea level.

The physical cause of the Great Flood is confirmed by the biblical story, which consists of two merged narratives; from these we learn that "the same day were all the fountains of the great deep broken up .... And the rain was upon the earth forty days and forty nights."

It is both logical and evident that the breaking up of "all the fountains of the great deep" was the effect of a specific cause, and that the cause was a mechanical one, forcing a change in land and sea levels.

It is obvious that the rain of forty days and forty nights was incidental to the Flood, and not its cause. Noah and his group of survivors were "shut in" the Ark, and therefore knew nothing of outside atmospheric conditions. They may have thought that the rain caused the Flood, for the story of the rain has been passed down by their posterity.

Simple arithmetic shows the impracticality of the theory holding that the earth was flooded to the tops of all the mountains by rain water; this leaves "the fountains of the great deep" as the natural cause of the Flood, this being in accord with the historical record.

Mount Everest is 29,000 feet above sea level, and its top was submerged. In forty days and forty nights there are 960 hours, or 57,600 minutes, for the waters to rise 29,000 feet; thus the waters rose 725 feet per day, 30 feet per hour, or approximately 6 inches per minute!

Obviously no continuous rainfall could create so great a flood. Since rain waters would run off into the oceans such a flood would be impossible by means of rainfall. Further, it would be beyond the capacity of the rain cycle of evaporation, condensation, and precipitation to produce it.

Therefore, the fountainous breaking up of the waters of the great deep, (See pages 51, 144) caused by the movements of earth materials, remains as the logical interpretation of the biblical story of the great Flood. Furthermore, this clearly fits into the pattern of the careening globe theory, and aids in identifying that last careen of the earth as the cause of the Flood.

In the mythology of the Greeks, the iniquity of the human race provoked Zeus to overwhelm the earth with a flood; this occurred, it was said, in the fifteenth century before their era.

From this flood, only one man, Deucalion, and his wife, Pyrra, survived in an ark or chest which came to rest on Mt. Parnassus, Greece. The elevation above present sea level of this mountain is 8,000 feet. The Hellenes (Greeks) were descended from Deucalion’s son, Hellen.

The ancient Hindus, Chaldeans, and the Jews all have records indicating that a great deluge occurred slightly more than 5,000 years ago.

Cuvier refers, without identification, to an ancient Brahman collection of Indo-European prose which had a recurrent flood theory.

William Thomasson says in his book The Glacial Period and The Deluge that,

"the Chinese have a wonderful tradition, that properly interpretated, tells of their sudden, flying leap to the Arctic... It is the story of the Ten Stems, or Ages."

Confucius, born about 551 B.C., begins his history of China with a reference to a receding flood which had been "raised to the heavens."

Plato relates through Critias the story, told to Solon by Egyptian priests in 600 B.C., that a great war of invasion had occurred about 9,000 years earlier, led by the kings of Atlantis, an island empire of very great extent, which was afterwards sunk by an earthquake and left an impassable barrier of mud to sailors voyaging past what is now Gibraltar.
 

Atlantis - The Antediluvian World

by Ignatius Donnelly

Text complete

Contains historical proofs of a great deluge, including details of many written records and legends of Assyrian, Babylonian, Chaldean, Hindu, and North and South American origin.

Mr. Donnelly refers only to the disappearance of Atlantis, and with it, its civilization. His researches disclose evidence of a civilization prior to the Flood, and of the dispersion of peoples and their arts following the catastrophe. Actually, most of the then existing peoples and their civilization were engulfed immediately by this latest World Flood.

Theories about the earth’s so-called crust of one hundred to one hundred fifty years ago reveal that the science writers of that period appear to have been divided into two main groups. Those who belonged to the older school of thought were referred to as "Cataclysmists," or "Catastrophists."

They held to the inherited, then accepted, theory that the main changes observable in the earth’s surface were the results of an adjusting power different from what is now commonly understood as The Laws of Nature. In the view of the newer school of thought, represented by those referred to as "Uniformitarians," the workings of natural, unchanging, explainable forces could account for all of the changes in the surface of the globe. Since then, the scientific world has become, in its beliefs, wholly uniformitarian; the cataclysmic theory of geological changes through the caprice of nature has been gradually abandoned.

The missing link, which kept cataclysmists and uniformitarians separated, is simply an acceptance as a basic scientific truth that catastrophism is a part of the natural working of Nature’s Laws.

A hundred odd years ago cataclysms were recognized as having occurred-as they are so recognized today-but the explanations offered were not generally accepted because they were based on the so-called caprice of nature: erratic, freakish, whimsical control by Nature-or the temperamental setting aside of Nature’s Laws. Today, scientists look to the Laws of Nature for explanations of all physical phenomena.

The difference between cataclysmists, who claimed to know the answers, even though wrong, and the fundamentalists, who were still seeking for a scientific explanation to which they might agree, is illustrated by the following story.

A cataclysmist was asked how he would explain the phenomenon if he saw a bar of steel floating in the air. "Why," he said, "if I happened to witness such a thing I would know that it proved the temporary suspension of one of Nature’s Laws."

A fundamentalist, when asked the same question, replied, "If I saw steel floating in the air I would know it proved the existence of a Law of Nature about which I happened to be ignorant."

What the cataclysmists explained erroneously, at the time, and the uniformitarians left unexplained, is now rationally explained by the basic theory of an automatically careening globe-a theory which is strictly uniformitarian, being wholly in accord with the immutable Laws of Nature.
 

Archeology

AT THE site of the ancient city of Ur of the Chaldeans, located in present-day Iraq about eight miles west of the Euphrates River and near its junction with the Tigris, archeologists have disclosed layers of materials which indicate that one city after another occupied the area during a long period of time.

Excavating layer after layer to a depth of about fifty feet, they have disclosed about one hundred and thirty-five successive periods of city life, each period also being demarcated by a different dynasty.

At slightly below the depth of fifty feet the archeologists came upon a layer of clay, eight to ten feet thick. Below the clay bed they discovered ten (one account says twelve) layers representing successive dynasties, but the relics and artifacts were found to be of a different kind than those found above the clay. A significant discovery was the fact that painted pottery was found below the clay bed but not above it, with the exception of scattered samples of painted pottery found immediately above the clay, but not higher up.

The archeologists are in agreement that a flood must have produced the bed of clay. Clay is formed by silt settling in water. The silt is derived primarily from the grinding of rocks upon rocks under the pressures and movements of glacial ice. A ten-foot clay bed took a long time to develop; the length of time required for its creation may be ascertained by counting its varves or layers-as explained in the section entitled "Geology."

Copper is an ingredient of the articles found in the strata above the clay bed, but copper is absent from the artifacts below-suggesting a discontinuity of the two civilizations separated by the period of time during which the clay bed was being created.

By comparing the relics and artifacts found in the different layers of dirt with those of other civilizations, we can estimate the elapsed time represented by the total fill of dirt above the clay bed to be about 6,000 years.

A high degree of civilization, at the culmination of Epoch No. 2 B.P., (Before Present) would account for the painted pottery. A movement of the land area, caused by the careening of the earth, from a temperate to a cold latitude, its submergence beneath the seas and the entire disappearance of its people and their civilization, is indicated for Epoch No. 1 B.P., during which the clay bed was formed.

At the commencement of the present epoch, at the moment of the last great flood, the land area careened to its present latitude, where it again became inhabited by human beings; but these new peoples did not possess the art of painting pottery, which characterized the artifacts of the race that had been destroyed by the flood.

Ur of the Chaldeans was probably located on the Persian Gulf, though it is now about 115 miles inland. The sea level has not remained constant, as explained elsewhere, and the lower delta of the Euphrates River has extended into the Gulf. Clues to this are the record found at Ur of a marine hero, conqueror of storm and sea, and artifacts indicating trade with distant places-probably partly by sea.

Excavations by archeologists at Cnossus, Crete, have disclosed 43 feet of soil and then virgin rock. The relics and artifacts uncovered indicate successive habitations by man, and when compared with specimens gathered elsewhere, these objects represent a time period of about 5,300 years.

The soil which developed during these distant years came from vegetation and animal remains, from wind-borne dust, and from erosions at higher levels. The relics and artifacts were not found in the very deepest excavations near the rock surface; this fact indicates that a period of time elapsed before people came to live there and also that the gradual build-up of the earth materials had extended over a period of more than 5,300 years.

The rock substrata below the soil at Cnossus fits into the pattern of the theory of a careening globe. A revolutionary change in the development of the earth strata occurred at this place.

During Epoch No. 1 B.P. the land area now known as the island of Crete was located near a latitude corresponding to the present Arctic Circle. Today, located near the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, it is in a temperate climate, is covered with soil and vegetation, and people have been living there for more than 5,300 years.
 

The Mammoths

ANIMAL fossils, especially mammoths, offer positive proof that the earth has rolled around sideways to its normal direction of rotation.

Mammoths are now being found in arctic regions, buried in lifelike condition in the permanently frozen ground. Their presence, condition, and location document a gigantic catastrophe in which the climate of a very large area of land suddenly and drastically changed. Only a sudden rotating or careening of the globe could have caused this change.

Siberian mammoths are commonly described by the terms "Wooly" or "Northern." Their bodies and limbs are covered by long coarse hair resembling tubular reddish-brown plastic needles. In addition, they have been found with an undercoat of short finer hair. But the skin of their head, trunk, and ears is smooth. It is evident that they, like our present-day elephants, were unsuited to a cold climate. Indeed, they would have frozen solid in the present winter climate of Siberia.

The food contents of their stomach and their teeth, however, provides us with evidence of their origin.

The literature on the mammoths is full of references to their eating evergreens, now the main vegetation of the regions where the carcasses are found. This reference has apparently resulted from the writers’ assuming that the mammoths actually lived and thrived in the present cold climate of Siberia. Analysis of the stomach contents of these carcasses does not substantiate this theory.

The evidence suggests that the feeding grounds containing these animals was moved quickly from a warm to a frigid climate. The carcasses of rhinoceroses, also found in the ground, aid in further substantiating that some of the feeding grounds were tropical, and that the present polar climate of their resting places is far different from the climate of the Eden-like land in which they were born and reared.

The food contents of the stomachs of the mammoths also give us a clue as to the exact time of day the earth careened. A full stomach indicates the sudden death of a healthy animal, and that death occurred after, and not before, the feeding period of the day. The food found in the mouths and stomachs of prehistoric monsters indicates that they had been grazing among abundant warm climate grasses when death suddenly overtook them.

The suggestion of a sudden careening of the globe is further substantiated by the condition of the carcasses. Several mammoths have been found in an upright position on their haunches. Some have been found with broken bones. The upright position supports the theory that they met death suddenly; the broken bones indicate violent contusions just prior to death. The super-hurricanes, or head winds caused by the rapid careening of the globe, would account for large animals being tossed about and buried in debris. The raging waters of a flood would produce a similar effect. The lifelike condition of mammoths found underground would indicate that they were frozen solid soon after having been buried alive.

In 1901, a mammoth was extricated from the bank of the Bereskovka River in Siberia, 66 N. latitude, almost on the Arctic Circle. It was solidly frozen in the tundra, but its head became exposed during a landslide. It was a male animal, found sitting on his haunches, with pelvis bone and right foreleg broken. In this condition he could not move, much less forage for food.

Yet it had perished just after eating breakfast. There was a small quantity of grass on his tongue which he had been in the act of eating. His teeth were filled with half-chewed grasses; twenty-seven pounds of grass were removed from his stomach on one occasion, and more on another. This animal is now mounted in the Zoological Institute of The Academy of Sciences in Leningrad.

The stomach contents of the Bereskovka mammoth consisted chiefly of field grasses, which were identified, analyzed, and photographed. The names of the grasses are given in Russian and Latin in an article by G. N. Kutomanov in the Bulletin of The Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg, 1914, Vol. 8, No. 6, pages 377-88. The grasses are similarly reported in a detailed description of the extrication of the beast in the annual report of The Academy of Sciences, 1914, Tome 13. That report observes that "Contrary to popular belief, no evergreens have ever been found in the stomach of a mammoth."

Nine genera of grasses were found and help us to establish the climatic conditions under which the animal lived. If the grasses were arctic grasses, the mammoth must have lived in an arctic climate. If the grasses were tropical, a tropical climate would be indicated. This problem was submitted to the Smithsonian Institute.

Mr. C. V. Morton, Curator, Division of Ferns, Department of Botany, advises that all of the grasses are now found in temperate climates, none in tropical climates, and four out of the nine are found as far north as the Arctic Circle.

Whether the grasses could have grown in a tropical climate, and survived after having been moved to temperate and frigid climates, is not ascertainable. The presence of rhinoceroses, however, indicates that the climate had been tropical.

A report concerning a rhinoceros found on the bank of the Vilui River in Siberia states:

"The animal appears to have been drowned, for the blood vessels of the head were found by Professor Brandt to be filled with red coagulated blood, such as would be produced by suffocating through drowning. Probably it was suddenly caught in a flood of rushing water, from which it had no opportunity to escape.

 

At one moment the animal was standing on firm ground, peacefully browsing, and in the next was overwhelmed by a roaring flood, the tumultuous waves of which bore along masses of mud and gravel in their sweeping course, so that it was drowned and buried almost instantly. Then the intense cold set in, the body froze, and the ground never thawed out until the day when it fell down on the banks of the river."

Both the Vilui River rhinoceros and the Bereskovka River mammoth evidently died of suffocation. The stomach contents of the mammoth, as indicated by the many photographs, did not contain water. The grasses were dry.

Therefore, it is reasoned, the beast was not drowned but perished in the super hurricane and dust and dirt storm caused by the rapid movement of the earth’s surface against the air in that particular area. The same winds, by their force and pressure, would have filled the air with the trees, animals, top soil, sand, gravel and debris, in which the animals were buried alive.

I. P. Tolmachoff states concerning the Bereskovka mammoth:

"The pelvis, a right foreleg and a few ribs were found broken, as well as indications of a strong hemorrhage and also suffocation in mud. The death by suffocation is proved by the erection of the male genital, a condition inexplicable in any other way."

(American Philosophical Society Transactions, N.S. 23, 1929).

Physicians have corroborated Mr. Tolmachoff’s conclusion of suffocation; this conclusion, in turn, helps to establish the fact that these animals died through sudden mass extinction, and not by slow or individually separate deaths.

Tolmachoff also states that no mammoth nor rhinoceros has been found frozen in the ice.

The fossil remains of other beasts and fishes have been found with undigested stomach contents. A beast with a partly chewed rodent, for example, was found in Colombia, South America, in 1945, and is now at the University of California, in Berkeley.

This beast, classed as genus Borhyrna has been estimated to be millions of years old. It had been buried in fine sand before it had had a chance to digest its recently swallowed breakfast. When the sandstone was carved away from the skeleton, the rodent was found resting where the beast’s intestines belonged.

The arctic regions, where mammoths, rhinoceroses, and other animals have been found, do not have sufficient vegetation to support a single mammoth, and the cold is so intense in winter that no mammoth could survive.

Yet, just prior to the latest careening of the globe this region was populated with teeming herds of animals.

They lived there because an ample food supply existed, and the food supply grew because the climate was warm. Millions of mammoths once lived in what is now a refrigerator for their carcasses and bones.

The abundant vegetation, indicated by the food supply, corroborates the other evidence that the latitude where these animals lived was either tropical or temperate.

Great quantities of bones of mammoths, horses, cattle, buffaloes, camels, sheep, deer, and many other grass-eating animals as well as those that preyed on the plant eaters have been found in the frozen tundra of Siberia. Their remains add to the positive evidence of the profuse vegetation necessary to support these hordes of animals. The finding of at least thirty-nine mammoths in the Siberian tundra is recorded.

Animals smaller and less spectacular than the mammoths and rhinoceroses have not been reported, when and if they have been found by hunters and trappers. Nevertheless, a great number of smaller animals must have become exposed on the surface through tundra landslides caused by summer rains that, unable to penetrate the frozen tundras, flood extensive land areas.

In regard to the remains of mammoths, mastodons, dinosaurs, and other prehistoric animals now being found at widely scattered areas of the earth, at many different latitudes, and in successive earth formations, three facts stand out: First, the fact of their total destruction. Second, the fact that the last members of the species died suddenly while in a condition of good health. Third, the fact that their remains show their habitations extended over widely scattered and now separated land areas.*

The theory of the recurrent careenings of the globe fits the evidence better than any other. The careening theory explains the cataclysms destroying animal and plant life, and accounts

The moot question of a land bridge at Bering Strait, between North America and Asia, is apparently solved by the great quantities of mammoth tusks and bones found in the now separated and frigid areas of Wrangell Island, New Siberian Islands, Alaska and Siberia; indicating that these animals roamed freely over a connected land area, in a warm climate, just previous to the latest careen of the globe, for changes in the climate of most areas of the earth as well as the duration of each epoch between the world deluges.
 

Sea Life

THE seas have also been searched for organic life which would help substantiate the theory of a careening globe, and clues have been found in seals and lobsters.

The seals found in the Caspian Sea and in Lake Baikal in Siberia are the same as the seals which inhabit Alaskan waters. The evidence indicates that the two branches of the family at one time were together, like the mammoths, and became separated during the last great deluge. Most of the lakes as well as land areas of the globe were then temporarily covered with the waters of the oceans enabling the seals during the Flood to scatter in all directions.

There is a logical, self evident explanation to the riddle why the same variety of seal happens to be found in three such widely separated locations. They are the descendants of those seal ancestors that were still living, and could find a food supply, when the Flood came to an end. Some among the ancestor group of seals had been stranded on land, some found themselves in lakes, while others were still in the ocean.

A lobster of peculiar genus is found only in icy arctic waters and in the PLA Deep of the Mediterranean Sea. Finding this lobster in the Mediterranean Sea helps to prove that the sea was near the North Pole before the last careening of the earth. At that time its waters were icy and suited to this species of cold-water lobster. When the earth last careened this sea was moved to a temperate climate. The cold-water lobster still continues to live in it, but only in its coldest waters and in its deepest depression.
 

Fossils

ABOUT a century and a half ago Georges Cuvier wrote:

"It is to fossils that we owe the discovery of the true theory of the earth; without them, we should not have dreamed, perhaps, that the globe was formed at successive epochs, and by a series of different operations.

 

They alone, in short, tell us with certainty that the globe has not always had the same envelope; we cannot resist the conviction that they must have lived on the surface of the earth before being buried in its depths; if we had only unfossiliferous rocks to examine, no one could maintain that the earth was not formed all at once."

There is, today, among scientists complete agreement with Cuvier. Drillings to a depth of four miles have disclosed the earth’s envelopes, now called strata, and each provides us with a record of the epoch during which it was created.

Footprints and tracks of animals, reptiles, and crustacea, that were made many thousands of years ago in various muds and wet sands, have been discovered and are now preserved in museums in the form of rock specimens. Raindrop splashes in the then soft, oozy mud have been discovered in numerous specimens of stone.

Where the evidence of a tropical climate surrounds frozen mud sculptures the sudden freezing can only be accounted for by an assumed careening of the earth which brought the mud into a different climate. The prompt solidification of the mud by freezing, when moved quickly from a tropical or temperate climate into a frigid climate, clearly accounts for these remarkable phenomena.

The mud sculptures having become like stone by freezing were further "set," during one of the glacial periods, by the accumulation of a layer of sediment. This, in turn, acted as a mold and preserved the shapes of the sculptures after the specimens had been careened back to tropical or temperate climates and the frozen mud or tundra thawed out during the succeeding epoch. In these molds the former mud slowly changed to stone.

There are great differences in the fossil markings on rocks. The sharp, delicate, shell like craters of raindrop splashes could not have been preserved except by quick freeze; the mud of unfrozen splashes soon oozes back and become pockmarks. Jellyfish entombed in mud and frogs could not have been preserved except by quick freeze; else they soon would have rotted.

On the shores of the Bay of Fundy large areas of dried red and sandy mud, deposited by spring tides, are laid bare and, baking in the hot summer sun for ten days during neap tides, the upper part of the mud becomes consolidated for a depth of several inches. Sir Charles Lyell reports finding, on these mud surfaces, small cavities or pit marks caused by raindrops, footmarks where birds had walked, and other tracks. On splitting a sample slab of the hardened mud and reducing it in thickness, he found footprints made during several prior neap tides on the inferior layers: each made by birds at different times.

This is an illustration of one of Nature’s methods of preserving track marks. Even today fossil prints of various kinds are produced in this way and may be found in many different localities. This drying out method of producing stone from mud, and preserving track marks, could never account for the delicate shell like craters of raindrop splashes which are preserved by quick freeze.

The most sharply delineated markings of tracks of living things and imprints of vegetation preserved in stone are found in the top layers of the strata that correspond to the end of each epoch. For example: the profusion of leaf and fern details on the top surfaces of vegetable muck deposits which have become coal (as described in detail later), indicates solidification by freezing during the last moments of the thousands of years of muck accumulation; after that moment no more muck accumulated at that location.

Where these muck deposits were located, a revolutionary change occurred in the way the earth’s materials are formed. From this we know that the conditions necessary for the forming of those earth layers suddenly changed. We know that a condition for the formation of vegetable muck was a tropical or temperate climate, and we know that its slow, time consuming creation suddenly ceased. We know that it would disintegrate or be consumed by slow combustion unless it was suddenly covered up.

We therefore look for evidences of a polar climate in the overlying strata, and we often find clays, shales, and slates, which confirm the theory of a careening globe.

A confirmation of the theory of a careening globe evidenced by the time elapsed between successive layers of the earth’s upper strata comes from the tracks of large dinosaurs which were examined by a trained observer, in 1940, on the Davenport Ranch in Bandera County, Texas. He reported sun cracks in the silt filling the footprints; this indicated that the surface had been below, although it is now above, water.

The important element in that observation is the fact that the sun cracks were in the silt filling the imprints, but not in the rock materials containing the track marks. From this it may be readily deducted that the tracks had become set as hardpan and then rock before the silt filler that cracked in the sun had been deposited; and that, therefore, the silt filler represented a later epoch of time than did the rock material which did not crack in the sun, and could not have been contemporaneous.

The dinosaurs whose skeletons were found grouped together in the rock formations at Dinosaur Monument, Utah, were drowned by the Great Deluge which ended the epoch in which they lived; they sank to the bottom of a lake or river and became covered with sediment which turned to rock during succeeding epochs of time.

Those rocks are now small mountains. The upheaval raising lake or river bottoms to much higher elevations occurred during one of the later careenings of the earth with simultaneous rearrangements of land masses and a Great Deluge. From Dinosaur Monument a million pounds of petrified bones have been quarried for display in various museums.

Mass graveyards with remains of mammoths have also been discovered. Geoffrey Bibby, in his book The Testimony of the Spade, describes one graveyard containing over 900 mammoths, both young and old, several hundred other grazing animals, and wolves and foxes; it is located at Predmosti in central Moravia, in a valley quarry six to ten feet below the surface of the covering dirt and top soil, in a stratum which has not yet turned to rock.

He states some conflicting opinions as to the probable reason for its existence. He cites similar mass burial grounds of mammoths as having been found in Lower Austria, at Krems, Langmannerdorf, and Willendorf, and elsewhere.

Evzen and Jiri Neustupny, in their book Czechoslovakia Before the Slavs (page 26) state that "the bones of more than a thousand mammoths have been found at Predmosti and the quantities discovered at Dolni Vestonice and Pavlov are no less impressive."

The mammoths’ graveyards can be considered as additional evidence of the recurrent cataclysms of the earth. Their shallow burials make it appear probable that they lived in Epoch No. 2 B.P., when the Hudson Bay Basin was at the North Pole of Spin; it also seems probable that their carcasses have not received quite as much protection against disintegration as have the New York State mastodons of Epoch No. 3 B.P.

An exhibit at the American Museum of Natural History showing a similar group of skeletons of prehistoric animals, all piled together like offal at a slaughterhouse, can be explained most rationally by the deluge caused by a careen of the globe. Those animals evidently came to their death by cataclysmic mass drownings.

Their bodies probably settled in an eddy, or at an obstruction, or in a deep hole at the bottom of the transient flood waters, where they were covered by dirt and debris. Quick freezing may also have retarded their disintegration.

The careening of the globe, with concurrent great deluges, is confirmed by such discoveries of massed skeletons of contemporaneous animals piled together. Similar burial grounds containing contemporaneous fish skeletons will be discussed later.

Petrified oysters, clams, crabs, and starfish were found at depths of several hundred feet during the digging of the Panama Canal. They were all perfectly preserved but had turned to stone. Some of the species do not thrive in the tropics, indicating that what is now Panama was at one time located in a temperate zone.

Specimens of fossil jellyfish have been discovered in Cambrian rock formations, classified as among the oldest rocks. Their external structures, as well as something of the interior forms of the jellyfish, were found to be quite well preserved. (Geology, by H. F. Cleland, page 416. )

Solidification by freezing of both the sand and the jellyfish, at the moment of the careen of the globe, is the simplest scientific answer to this age old riddle of how a soft jellyfish could become solid rock. What is now rock was once soft and wet sand which was suddenly hurled about so that the jellyfish was virtually buried in it; thereupon both suddenly congealed into a solid mass by quick freezing.

The preponderance of marine fossils found so far, as compared to upland fossils, is partly due to the cleavages of the unconformable debris which covers former sea surfaces. Such cleavages bring about the exposure of the trapped and preserved specimens, among which the best preserved are those that have been quickly frozen.

The fossils of the uplands embedded in what was soil at that time, are less easily discoverable. Many animals, including dinosaurs, are found in rock. Mammoths are being found in tundra or dirt that will change to rock, and mastodons have been retrieved from moist earth, well below the surface, which will eventually become rock.

As we have seen, the bones of fossil animals must be assumed to be those of animals quickly buried after death, for bones left on the surface decay rather rapidly due to oxidation and the action of organic acids wherever vegetation flourishes. The former enormous herds of buffalo on the American plains did not become fossils. The present swarming animal life of the African plains does not become fossilized at death. At death animals become part of the substances building up the soil.

But when mass burials of animals have occurred due to the careenings of the globe the remains have been embedded in earth through which mineral laden waters have percolated and have established conditions for creating fossils.

 

Trees and Vegetation

FOSSIL trees and other vegetation provide additional evidence regarding past epochs of our planet.

Upright trees and tree trunks are found in the sea; fresh tree trunks lie underground; fresh fruit and leaves, frozen like the mammals, are found in Siberia; fossilized and petrified trees exist net only on the surface of the earth, but also in tiered layers of its sub strata. And all of these phenomena can be traced quite rationally to the past careenings of the globe.

In the Bay of Fundy, at Fort Lawrence, Nova Scotia, the stumps of a submerged forest of pine and beech trees stand upright in the soil in which it once grew. They become visible during low tide. In other parts of the Bay of Fundy also, short, decaying stumps and roots emerge briefly and are exposed to view during low tide.

These trunks and stumps are the remnants of trees once growing in upland areas that were completely submerged when the earth last careened. As the sea level later was lowered (due to the waters accumulating as ice in Antarctica and elsewhere) the trees were all gradually exposed to the air. Oxidation occurred, and the exposed parts rotted away.

The tree trunks of any submerged forest all end abruptly at low tide water level, for any part of a tree projecting above the water or mud would, if given enough time, become oxidized by the air, would rot, and be washed away. What will finally be left are the stumps and short trunks standing below the lowest water level.

Three branches in a vertical position were reported by Nordenskiold (in The Voyage of Vega) to be at the bottom of the sea adjacent to the arctic islands of New Siberia. Nordenskiold also refers to tree branches which burn with a glow, without a flame, and which continue to be cast up every year in a northern Siberian lake, indicating submerged forests, beneath the surface of the lake.

At many places tree trunks have been found underground. These trees obviously did not grow underground, and under normal conditions no fallen tree becomes buried. They must have grown above ground in some former epoch and then been buried by a cataclysm, for dead trees lying on the ground merely rot and decay.

They are gradually oxidized, just like the decaying tree limbs projecting above water. Under such conditions they would have disappeared entirely before a hundred years had elapsed. But when trees are buried in water or damp earth they are protected from oxidation, and are able to stay fresh for thousands of years.

The presence of these underground trees is further evidence of a cataclysm that buried them under dirt and debris borne by hurricanes and flood waters.

Fresh trees can now be mined in many places, including the Dismal Swamps of Virginia, the Hackensack, New Jersey, meadows, and in the marsh area of the isthmus connecting Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.

In certain areas of northern Siberia innumerable tree trunks called by the natives "Adam’s wood" and said to be in all stages of decay are embedded in the solidly frozen tundra. Because they were once growing trees, of types which do not grow in that climate, they confirm that a change in climate has taken place, such as would be caused by a careen of the globe.

They could have been broken by a hurricane or flood. If so, they will show a clean break on the side on which the breaking force was imposed and torn fibers on the lee side. A reexamination of the wood, to determine genera and species of the trees, will enable us to establish the latitude range or climate in which these trees grew.

A so called mammoth tree, with fruit and leaves still on it, was discovered and reported after a landslide of Siberian tundra. Such cold storage of fruit 7,000 years old can only be explained by a sudden transportation of the fruit from a warm climate in which it grew to the cold storage climate in which it has been refrigerated. This specimen of fruit, with leaves, and many other specimens of leaves reported found in Siberia also confirm the careen of the globe.

The American Museum of Natural History in New York possesses an exhibit of fruit and plant fossils postulated as millions of years old; the exhibit includes figs and palm fruits; fresh, full sized banana leaves; fig, palm, sycamore, pine, and gingko leaves; sequoia pine cones, and water chestnuts. The fruits are full size and luscious looking, as though freshly fallen from the trees; the leaves are also full and fresh looking, not shrunken or folded as from exposure to the sun, but appear as just fallen, or laid down in water.

It is necessary to apply the theory of "quick freeze" to these specimens, as otherwise they would have become rotted, crushed, or otherwise destroyed, like most other vegetation. The fruits and leaves "set" by "quick freezing," and then being hermetically sealed within soil which became rock, the prerequisites were established for the slow process of petrification to take place.

Nothing else accounts for the fossilization of this vegetation but the careening of the earth. Figs, for example, are a tropical or semitropical product. To be preserved they had to be frozen, and to become frozen they must have been moved to a frigid climate.

Fossil trees are found all over the world. Outstanding examples of petrified forests are near Cairo, Egypt, at sea level, and those high up in the Rocky Mountains in Yellowstone Park, near the continental divide.

At the latter location there are twenty seven horizontal tiers of former tree life, representing an equal number of Life Ages; all have become exposed as the side of the mountain has been gouged out.

The fossil trees which have become exposed in some of the earth’s layers show recurrent periods of tree life; the strata showing tree life are sometimes separated by strata of earth from which trees are missing. Where tree fossils occur in one stratum, are absent in the strata above and below, but occur in the next adjacent strata, they give us an authoritative confirmation of the careening of the earth. The slow rising and sinking of land areas relative to sea levels, which prevail at all times, cannot account for this phenomenon.

Upright fossil trees are found at many different levels at the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia. The tree trunks vary in diameter from fourteen inches to four feet, and in height from six to twenty feet. The lower ends are in strata of coal or shale. Tree roots penetrate two different strata in some locations. The tree trunks, all cut off abruptly at the tops, extend through different strata of shale, sandstone and clay, but never through a seam of coal above them. Tree roots having grown through two adjacent strata of earth confirm the assumption that they grew in soil and that the soil has changed into rock.

The coal and shale strata from which the trees sprouted are seen to belong to an earlier period than the superimposed strata above the upper ends of the vertical tree trunks. The seam of coal next above was a still later development. The beds containing the fossil trees are usually separated from each other by masses of shale and sandstone many yards in thickness. These strata represent the developments of many thousands of years and successive epochs of time.

Nothing of the original trees is preserved except the bark; it forms tubes of pure bituminous coal and is filled with sand, clay, and other deposits which appear like solid internal cylinders. In one of the trees examined by Sir Charles Lyell nine distinct layers, or deposits, formed the interior cylinder, while there were only three layers of earth surrounding the tree. The formations in which the tiered layers of upright fossil tree trunks are found contain also about nineteen seams of coal. They range from two to three miles in length along the coast, and are not interrupted by faults.

The best view of these ancient tree trunks may be had at Joggins, where the cliffs are 150 to 200 feet high, forming the southeastern shore of an inlet of the Bay of Fundy, called Chignecto Bay. The fossil trees are all at right angles to the planes of stratification, which are inclined at an angle of 24 degrees to the south southwest. The strike lines of these planes, together with the length of the uplifted formation, as shown in data from the Spur Ranch drilling (see page 73), indicate that the trees were once buried about 2 to 2’2’ miles below the surface, and that they are about five to ten million years old.

The circumstance that all the trees have been cut off abruptly at the tops suggests that they once stood under water as sub merged forests, at which time the bark became carbonized as is happening today to the upright tree stumps in the Bay of Fundy.

The tiered layers of fossil trees are a visual confirmation of the fact that the earth has careened repeatedly. Each layer was developed during a different epoch. Each epoch ended with a change of true latitude for the land area now known as Nova Scotia.

Similar tiered layers of fossil trees are found in the arctic regions. Frozen "Wood Hill" in the New Siberia Islands, well within the Arctic Circle is described by Nordenskiold as being 200 feet high and consisting of thick horizontal sandstone beds alternating with strata of fissile bituminous tree stems, heaped on each other to the top of the hill, with vertical tree trunks embedded in the sandstone of the upper strata.

This scientific disclosure, on analysis, shows that the bituminous tree stems, which are now in the fossilized form of coal, were the successive growths of earlier ages. The thick sandstone beds correspond to sands created during the intermediate epochs of time, or sands left by one of the successive great deluges of the earth.

The fact that these fossil trees are displayed on the side of a hill indicates that the hill is a remnant of land left standing after the surrounding land areas were gouged out by flood or glacier. The vertical tree stems in the upper strata are the remnants of trees which were growing at the time of the latest cataclysm of the globe, and it can be predicted with confidence that, on reexamination, the protruding tree trunks will prove to be growths of a temperate or tropical climate.

Superimposed coal fields, separated by considerable thicknesses of rock, are described in "Fossil Flora of Sydney Coalfields, Nova Scotia," by W. A. Bell (in Memoir 215, Geological Survey of Canada). The text and illustrations describe hundreds of specimens of fossil leaves, ferns, tree bark, and wood. Many of the successive horizons contain duplicate fossils; but in each horizon differences in species occur, with the earliest (lowest) ones differing most from the latest.

It is natural to assume that the fossil leaves and barks of trees came from trees that also have been fossilized. Layers of upright fossil trees, like those in the cliffs of Joggins on the opposite side of Nova Scotia, are never found in the coal seams, and it is therefore assumed that they would remain undiscovered in the drifts of the Sydney coal mines, to which Mr. Bell confines his report. His specimens were mostly taken from the roofs of coal mines which extend three miles out from shoreline under the sea. Fossil trees are exposed in superimposition on the adjacent cliffs, as at Joggins.

Similar vertical fossil tree trunks have been found in other locations. For example, at St. Helen’s, Lancashire, England, they occur in silty clay below a layer of about seven feet of brownish colored topsoil. The stratum containing the trees is reported to be about twenty one feet thick, inclined twenty three degrees to the east southeast, and rests on white sandstone. The tree trunks begin on a level about 8 ? feet above the white sandstone stratum and extend up about nine feet.

These trees grew during a previous epoch, but they did not grow in England. The topsoil, above the tree bearing stratum, is all that was developed in the land area now known as England.

In all the cases discussed it is obvious that the trees grew to their present size upon the earth’s surface, were suddenly buried in water, mud, or moist earth, and after fossilization, were returned to the surface of the earth when the covering strata of materials were gouged out by glaciers or washed away during great deluges.

Again, the theory of the careening of the globe explains all the evidence we have here reviewed.
 

Rivers and Waterfalls

The waterfalls of certain rivers furnish us with time scales with which we can estimate the duration of their existence.

In the language of geology, a waterfall, or cataract, is a temporary erosion in the land which is always moving upstream. This stems from the fact that the brink of the falls is being worn away continually by crumbling and erosion of the earth materials of the ledges, and the lowest rock layers, below the falls, are being constantly cut away by the forces created by the falling waters.

As a result of this erosion it is possible to estimate the length of the life of a waterfall and to determine the duration of our present epoch by the life span of the waterfall.
 

The falls of the Niagara River have moved upstream from what is now Lewiston, on Lake Ontario, and have created a gorge which is now about seven miles long.

Records kept by the U.S. Geological Survey since 1842 regarding the speed of retreat of the Niagara River cataract document that the entire Falls are creeping upstream at an average annual rate of about 2;2’ feet per year. The Canadian Falls section creeps at about 4;2’ feet per year.

The precipice of the Falls is now very much longer at its ledges than the width of the gorge which it has cut. The flow of water over the ledges is now much shallower, with correspondingly less pressures than existed, say, 3,000 years ago, when the Falls was in the gorge.

As a result, the rate of the erosion and undermining of the cataract, and therefore the speed of its retreat, is less now than during the early existence of the gorge. The creeping speed during the creation of the gorge was comparable to the speed of retreat of the Canadian Falls, where the weight, speed, and pressure of the flowing water are more concentrated than the average over the entire Falls.

In 1891 the Commissioners of the State Reservation at Niagara Falls employed Robert S. Woodward to estimate the time required for the creation of the gorge of the Niagara River. A man of unquestioned integrity and superior competence later to become president of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C. he reported that less than 8,000 years had been required to cut the gorge of the Niagara River.

By assuming a creeping speed of 4% feet per year one quarter foot per year faster than the upstream movement of the Canadian Falls, to allow for the additional waters now going over the American Falls we obtain 7,800 years for the approximate life span of the Niagara Gorge. This figure, however, is subject to correction.
 

When at Lewiston the Falls were approximately 280 feet higher than they are now, and this indicates that the estimated age of the Niagara River is about 7,000 years.

A diminution of forty feet in the perpendicular height of the Falls for every mile that they receded southward is pointed out in a survey made by New York State Geologist James Hall, as recorded by Sir Charles Lyell.

Hall states that the southward dip of the rock strata from Lewiston to the Falls is about 25 feet per mile, with the river channel sloping in the opposite direction at the rate of 15 feet per mile. As a result of this change in the height of the Falls, the rates of speed of erosion and cutback of the upstream retreat of the Falls have been variable and not constant. It has depended on the height of the Falls and on the nature of the rocks being cut.

Assuming approximately constant average yearly volume, the force created by this perpendicularly falling water is determined by the height of the fall. The kinetic energy created by the fall increases with the square of the speed of falling. The speed of fall in turn increases with height, through acceleration by gravity, at approximately 32 feet per second for each consecutive second of its fall. The wreckage and erosion of the bottom layers of the precipice take place at a faster rate with a higher fall.

This wear and erosion become greater than the erosion at the ledges over which the waters fall. Sections of the cliffs give way and fall to the bottom. It is apparent that the upstream creepage of the Falls was faster when the Falls were higher.

The birth of the Niagara River and the record of the short span of its life history during our present epoch are proof of a recent careen of the globe and a world cataclysm. During the previous epoch the Great Lakes watershed existed in a tropical latitude and drained into the ocean; but it did not drain by way of the Niagara River as it does now. The Niagara River as we know it today did not then exist. It was born, in its present form, with the birth of our epoch.

Embedded sea shells and corals indicate marine formations in the ten distinct strata of rocks, from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, through which the Niagara River flows. Ancient beach lines, ridges, and terraces are found at successive levels. At different levels the rocks also have been smoothed, polished, and furrowed by ice. The grooves in the rocks are tell tale evidence that they were once on the surface, and that they were located in polar regions, where they supported the moving glaciers when this land area was undergoing successive ice ages.

A most careful record of this formation and one of the first was made by Sir Charles Lyell, and is recorded in his book Travels in North America in 1841-42. These geological phenomena require, for a rational explanation, a careening globe with attendant world cataclysms. Other discoveries of Lyell at Niagara also seem to require changes in the earth’s Axis of Figure for their explanation.

He discovered that the northwest cliffs of the whirlpool do not consist of the normal regional rock formation, but are composed of drift, consisting of sand, gravel, loam and boulders, cemented into a conglomerate by carbonate of lime. Since this is a surface layer now, consolidated by lime, it seems to indicate that it had been an ocean bottom for a long period of time, during a previous epoch.

This conglomerate fills an old river bed, now known as St. Davis Valley, which extends northwest from the whirlpool for about three miles, and at its mouth is about two miles wide. The present northern section of the Niagara River, flowing slightly northeast from the whirlpool, is apparently a movement cutoff, established in our present epoch.

The conglomerate filling the St. Davis Valley could not have become deposited during the cataclysm that ended the epoch just previous to the commencement of our own epoch the latest world Flood because of the time required for its cementation.

It could not have become cemented unless allowed to remain for a long period of time, unassailed by the present rushing waters of the whirlpool. It appears, therefore, to be a formation resulting from a cataclysm that ended one of the earlier epochs.

The boulders it contains are evidence that it underwent an ice age, below an ice cap.

Geologists have also reported important discoveries of two recent river beds at higher levels than the present Niagara River. One river terrace is twelve feet and the other 24 feet above the present level, suggesting that Goat Island, between the American and Canadian Falls, was once under water, with the same fresh water shells being found there as in the higher river terraces. Both higher terraces extend to the whirlpool. They appear to confirm successive world cataclysms.

The Mississippi River like the Niagara River provides a tell tale geological time scale showing us how long the earth’s surface has remained essentially as it is today. The upstream retreat of the Falls of St. Anthony, on the river at Minneapolis, Minnesota, has caused the formation of a gorge between seven and eight miles long and about a quarter of a mile in width. This gorge provides a cutoff from the broad trough of the old Mississippi River bed used during previous epochs of time.

Thanks to information regarding the locations of these Falls provided by early explorers - first Hennepin and later Carver we know that the Falls receded, up to 1856, at an estimated rate of about five feet per year, and that therefore approximately 8,000 years must have elapsed from the time when the Falls started, at Fort Snelling, to the time they arrived at their present geological location, at the north end of the gorge cut by the Falls.

A correction factor of 10% to 15% must here also be applied in correctly interpreting this time scale; we thus arrive at approximately 7,000 years for the life span of the gorge of St. Anthony’s Falls. Consequently the Falls of St. Anthony and Niagara Falls both give us a time scale of about 7,000 years for the duration of our present epoch of time.

The Falls of St. Anthony, when they were located at Fort Snelling, were 110 feet above the present river grade at that point. Now the Falls are about 40 feet high. From these facts it is logical to assume that there was a greater amount of undercutting of the precipice of the Falls when they were higher and that the waters then landed on the base rocks with much greater force.

There was therefore a correspondingly faster upstream creep during the youth of the Falls than during its old age. (The probable profiles of the Falls at various times in the past, with plan and elevations, are shown in Geological Survey, Folio 201, Minneapolis St. Paul, Minn.)

Geological evidence discloses that there were troughs for the bed of the Mississippi River in former epochs of time. One trough now buried commences on the Minnesota River about four miles west of Fort Snelling, circles and joins the present river where the break through of the present cutoff occurs just above the Falls of St. Anthony. Here again the river’s bed or trough becomes wide and eroded.

The Minnesota River occupies an oversize and eroded trough which continues beyond its source, crosses the continental divide, and is continuous with the channel of the Red River of the North which now flows in the opposite direction.

These geological features show that a change of land elevation occurred in this area about 7,000 years ago. The old river troughs were cut in previous epochs. The narrow gorge or cutoff was created during the present epoch.

The Mississippi River’s delta contains a record of the river’s age. The number of cubic feet of sediment, and the number of millions of tons of earth materials being carried southward by the waters of the river and deposited in the Gulf of Mexico, have been determined with fair accuracy.

Based on these data and the dimensions of the delta of the river, a close estimate of the age of the delta can be made; this will also give us the age of the present river. But estimates of the age of the river already made by those whose opinions are most highly regarded vary from 4,000 years to 138,393 years (Geological Bulletin #8, Louisiana Department of Conservation). This wide variation in expert opinion is due to the total lack of agreement as to which of the many substrata of the river bed are to be considered as belonging to the delta.

The head of the delta has been found, by different individuals and groups, to be at various places including Keokuk, St. Louis, Cape Girardeau, Commerce, the mouth of the Red River, and Baton Rouge. Each of those places is probably a correct location for one of the former delta heads, for there have been many.

The general acceptance of the new theory of a recurrently careening globe will result in resolving all differences of opinion as to the location of the head of the delta of the present Mississippi River. Each time the earth careened a new delta head became established, for the watershed existed as far back in geological time as we can go.

During Epoch No. 1 B.P., preceding the latest careen of the globe, the Mississippi River flowed from west to east in a tropical climate. The Sudan Basin, now in Africa, was then at the North Pole. In Epoch No. 2 B.P. the river flowed generally southward, in a frigid climate. The Hudson Bay Basin land area was at the North Pole and in summers glaciers fed the upper river.

Cores from borings have been taken in abundance by the Mississippi River Commission to establish the approximate areas and depths of the successive alluvial strata and to determine the various channels of the old river in past ages. Variations in the character of the fills and a study of the diatoms, algae, foraminifera, and other fossil evidences will disclose changes of climate.

Remains of tropical vegetation and water life should mark the next delta layer below the surface strata. Next below that should be evidences of the flow off of the glaciers which melted at the headwaters of the river at the very beginning of Epoch No. 1 B.P. Below this, the evidences should disclose a cold water river whose northern headwaters were fed by the North Pole Hudson Bay Basin glaciers during Epoch No. 2 B.P.

To determine the age of the present river it is necessary to identify the area and volume of the present top delta and divide the weight of its cubical contents by the weight of the average annual deposits of sediment.

The following table results from a preliminary effort to tie together epochs and strata that are now generally recognized.

Great Salt Lake is a shrinking remnant of a much greater lake known as Lake Bonneville which in prehistoric times filled the entire present day land basin.

The Bonneville shore level, wave cut by the former lake, shows it to have covered an area of about 20,000 square miles, with a depth of 1,050 feet. (Bulletin of the University of Utah, Vol. 30, October 1939, No. 4) . The area of the existing lake is about 2,000 square miles, which is about the size of the land area of the state of Delaware.

Proofs of the recurrent careenings of the globe have been developed from the `original proposition that the continents of North and South America lay along the equator, in tandem, during the epoch of time just preceding the epoch in which we are now living. This theory receives confirmation from the old shore lines, ’beaches, and wave cut terraces in the rocks now high above the surface of Great Salt Lake.

When the present lake basin was located in an equatorial area, it received as great a rainfall as now prevails along the Amazon River. Such torrential rainfall can be considered sufficient to fill the lake basin to the Bonneville shore line level, since lake levels are maintained by the balance between rainfall on the watershed and the rate of evaporation, or where there is an overflow outlet by its elevation.

Descriptions of soil borings confirm the lake basin’s tropical location in Epoch No. 1 B.P., and also its successive locations in tropical and nontropical latitudes.

Excellent illustrations of the many different prehistoric shore lines and other features appear in the comprehensive report on Lake Bonneville by G. K. Gilbert in U.S. Geological Survey, Monograph #1, 1890.
 

Ice Ages

Louis Acnssiz, around 1845, first used the phrase ice age to account for glacial markings on rocks.

Since then many persons have assumed, erroneously, that the glacial markings indicated a change in climate throughout the world. The term Ice Age is now used to define a relatively small area, approximately within a circle, such as the area now contained within the Antarctic Circle. We are now living with what may be called "The Antarctica Ice Age." A lesser Ice Age includes those areas of Greenland, North America, and Asia that lie within the Arctic Circle.

Ice Ages have occurred in all the continents of the world, as indicated by the tell tale scouring marks on successive layers of rocks. These rock groovings always radiate from central points which indicate the locations of the North Pole or South Pole of that particular epoch of time. The surrounding polar areas never received enough heat from the sun to melt the ice which accumulated from the constant snowfall.

During each successive polar Ice Age the rest of the globe enjoyed tropical or temperate climates, as at present. We know this because the fossils of animal and plant life indicate the climates in which each section of successive earth strata existed and they tell us clearly that the globe has rotated on many successive Axes of Figure.

Five successive Ice Ages have left their scars in land areas of Canada and northeastern United States. Glacial markings on rocks, loose boulders and debris, are in evidence over most of this area.

Life Ages have occurred in these same land areas between the Ice Ages. These Life Ages were long intervals of time during which these regions were free of glaciers, and were warmer than at present. Each Ice Age blotted out the Life Age of a certain area and was, in turn, succeeded by another Life Age in the same region. These changes were sudden and without gradation.

The sudden birth of each Ice Age was paralyzing and destructive to animal and plant life. Each Ice Age produced an ice cap which grew to maturity and by its great weight depressed and dented the earth beneath. The ice caps uprooted and carried on, under and within their massive slowly moving bodies, enormous sections of rock and earth to be deposited elsewhere; while, beneath the ice, the land was gouged, earth and rocks were scattered all around, and valleys and river beds were filled with debris.

The end of the ice caps did not come through slow withdrawal. When they left, they disappeared just as rapidly as such huge masses of ice can melt when moved to a tropical climate.

Evidences of the Life Ages are found under and above the successive overlapping flows of till and glacial debris which have been carefully charted by the United States Geological Survey. During each Life Age animals and plants lived and multiplied, forests flourished, bogs developed, brooks and rivers flowed, valleys filled, while mountains and rocks eroded.

Fossil remains of animal and plant life are absent from the strata of till and debris representing the five Ice Ages occurring between the Life Ages. Absent also from these strata are the marks of erosion of soil and rock and the usual evidences of the normal work of rivers and brooks in filling valleys with transported sediment. The waters had been changed to solid ice. Glacial debris is the sole remaining evidence.

Today, those land areas are in a part of the globe which is Laving a Life Age, while the land areas of Antarctica and Greenland are passing through a temporary Ice Age. Canada and northeastern United States are now in a second successive Life Age, since they once were covered by an ice cap, or formed a frozen tundra adjacent to it.

In the area now known as New York State several whole mastodons have been discovered, as well as parts of over two hundred mastodons and of about fifteen mammoths. Like the mammoths found in Siberia and Alaska, the whole mastodons were perfectly preserved after their death by quick freezing and cold storage during the first Ice Age. Also as in the case of the mammoths, they have been found with full stomachs, indicating the sudden death of a healthy animal.

These mastodons lived in a warm climate, in Epoch No. 3 B.P., perished at the close of this period, and were buried in a flood or by hurricane debris all of which froze solid. During Epoch No. 2 B.P. they were interred in cold storage, the New York State area then being frozen tundra, and the Hudson Bay area being at the North Pole.

Subsequently, the North Pole was in the Sudan Basin area (during the following epoch, No. 1 B.P. ), and the New York State area with its interred mastodons was moved to the tropics. Both soil and dead animals immediately thawed out; but the soil which preserved these particular specimens must have been so moist that oxidation was retarded.

Now they are in a temperate climate, during a second Life Age for this land area, and are frequently found in a collapsed and disintegrating condition.

There is much geological evidence to show that the last Ice Age of the North American continent was caused by a great ice cap centered in Canada that extended southward to present day New York City. Moraines, eskers, clay beds, and other residual evidence of the glacier exist in many places, including northern New Jersey and southern New York.

A shallow dent in the earth, averaging 420 feet below sea level, now known as Hudson Bay, marks the ice cap’s approximate center, while the heights of land known as the Laurentian Shield and which almost surround Hudson Bay, mark the final edges or lips of the main ice bowl.

The watershed of the Hudson Bay Basin corresponds to the kind of scar or dent in the surface of the earth which an ice cap could make, and which it would leave behind as evidence of its existence. Counts of the annual varves (layers) in clay beds at New London, Wisconsin, and Hackensack, N.J., indicate that the Hudson Bay Ice Age lasted for approximately 7,000 years!

The distance from the North Pole of Figure of the epoch, in Hudson Bay, to the moraine of Long Island is approximately 1,800 miles. Analytically, this compares with the distance from the present South Pole of Figure to the ocean, this being about 1,800 miles for most of the perimeter of the Antarctic Continent. At the Ross Sea the distance is about 600 miles.

The flow offs of glacial ice, during the Hudson Bay Ice Age, were distributed in much the same way as the present flow offs of glacial ice in Antarctica. The ice flowed until it reached the ocean, flowing faster in the direction of Hudson Strait and Davis Strait than toward Long Island, N.Y., because the ocean was nearer in that direction and the grade was correspondingly steeper; it accumulated greater volumes of ice where the flow-off was most retarded.

In the southern region the grooves in the rocks show that the ice was flowing south, but in the northern regions the markings show that the ice was flowing north. Glacial striae caused by the movements of this last North American ice cap, together with displaced boulders, are in evidence as far south as Pennsylvania, Ohio, and the Mississippi valley, and as far north as the Northwest Territory of Canada.

The outstanding fact is that the ice radiated from a center in the area now known as the Hudson Bay Basin. It did not spread southward from the present North Pole area. The ice flowed away from a central point; this shows clearly that the Hudson Bay Basin was then at the North Pole of the Axis of Spin, and that the ice flowed in every direction from the pole.

In Antarctica today the very same types of striations are being created on the rocks, and boulders are continuously carried seaward (from the South Pole) on glacial ice flowing northward.

Over a hundred years ago Louis Agassiz discovered glacial markings in the Amazon Valley, along the Equador. On both sides of the Equator within 18 and 20 degrees glacial markings have been found in Permian rocks. In other regions of the world, tree specimens with annual rings have been found in rock formations of the same age indicating that temperate zone conditions prevailed in the regions where the trees grew, at the very same time that polar region glaciers scoured and striated the rocks at that time located near the poles but now being near the Equator.

Ice Ages are recorded in rocks at random latitudes and longitudes for all periods of geological history. For example, in all continents glacial horizons are found in rocks classified in geological textbooks as Pre Cambrian and Permian. Three of the Pre Cambrian locations are in Africa, three in Asia, and two in Australia. Five of the Permian glaciated horizons are in South America. Five of the most recent Ice Ages are recorded in the rocks of Canada and the United States.

In all cases where the records can be studied, it has been found that the striae show radiations of the scouring ice masses from central points. This gives adequate evidence in support of the theory that the glaciated areas were at the poles of the earth in the epoch of time during which each ice cap was developed.

They moved away from the poles when they reached maturity and caused the globe to careen.
 

Geological Outcroppings

THE age of various earth strata are determined by studying the fossils found in them, and generally the lower strata correspond to the earlier epochs of the earth’s history but not always.

Outcroppings of very old rocks appear in many places on the earth’s surface instead of being buried deep in its bowels. The "Old Red," for example, a very hard and durable sandstone, which is classified as belonging to the Lower Cambrian Period, is found as surface outcroppings in New York State, in West Virginia, and Canada. It should normally be buried at depths of three miles or more, according to the geology charts.

Such facts indicate that the slow building up of the earth, epoch by epoch, layer by layer, through ages of time, has not been an uninterrupted process. A mighty cataclysm has taken away all the overlying rock strata and the earth materials above the hard red sandstone in the areas where the stone now appears as an outcropping, but that same cataclysmic force was not on the loose in those other areas where the overlying materials are still intact.

The gouging out and tearing away of earth strata to a very great depth in certain areas have been caused by such materials coming into contact, at high speeds, with masses of ocean waters churned into a swirling flood during the careens of the globe.

This operational force of Nature is the logical reason why the "Old Red" sandstones are being found as outcroppings on the surface of the earth; isostasy accounts for the earth again being rounded off following the new arrangements of the earth’s masses of land and sea.

According to older authorities, the transporting power of water equals the 6^th power of its velocity. It is given as 3.2 to the 4th power (3.24) by P. G. Worcester in his recent textbook in geomorphology. He states that when the St. Francis Dam in California failed in 1928, blocks of concrete weighing more than 10,000 tons were carried more than half a mile down the valley.

During the transient cataclysms caused by land masses careening against the ocean waters, the pressures created at maximum speeds of careening are beyond the imagination of man. Vegetation is crushed to a pulp and animals are obliterated.

The ancient earth materials which once covered the "Old Red" sandstone, in successive layers, and which were torn loose and washed away by one of the great deluges, are now superimposed somewhere on more recent earth strata, and may be either heaped in ridges or blocks or spread widely in conglomeratic strata.

In Cuvier’s "Essay on the Theory of the Earth" it is stated that,

"Mr. Kerwin has given weighty reasons for his belief that the globe has been, at some remote period, most violently assailed by a mighty flood from the southeast. Tearing up and bearing away the looser materials of the southern hemisphere, it has brought a great body of them to the northern, and impressed upon the capes of Good Hope, of Horn, and Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania), and other promontories, the marks of its overwhelming force."

There is geological evidence that mountains have been cut off and carried away during the cataclysms of the deluges.

Miles of telltale slanting rocks exist in normal formations which appear to have been cleanly cut off. A fairly level plain is now all that remains where once a mountain stood at Joggins, Nova Scotia, on the Bay of Fundy, where the fossil forests are also on display.

Martin Gardner, referring to Chief Mountain in the Alberta Montana region of the Rocky Mountains, where older strata are found resting on younger, states that,

"In its form the fault line of the overthrust can be seen clearly, with slickened faces of rock which testify to the faulting movement." He mentions Hart Mountain in Wyoming as another upside down spot, and he states, "The fault line is easily traceable for some twentyfive miles."

(Facts and Fallacies in the Name of Science, Page 130. )

Table Mountain, at Capetown, South Africa, rises 3,500 feet above sea level. It consists of horizontal layers of sedimentary rocks still intact.

All of the surrounding layers of rock were gouged out and washed away by the impact of the ocean waters when the southern tip of the continent of Africa spearheaded the southward careen of that continent during the latest great deluge.

The gouged out profile of Table Mountain and other land strata of the southern tip of Africa illustrate the effects of some of the forces of nature which were active when that continent careened southward into, under, and through the inert ocean.

The oceans around Africa became extremely turbulent because of the sudden change of ocean depths with change of latitude, and because of the motion of the great land mass which careened into them. It was the reverse of an ordinary flood or of the overflow of a mighty river. In this flood the land moved against the waters, and the waters then rode up over some of the land.

The Koran confirms the mechanical force of the flooding waters: "The earth’s surface boiled (seethed, roiled) up . . . the Ark moved . . . amid waves like mountains."

It was upon these temporarily turbulent waters, near the east coast of Africa, that the vessels of Noah and Deucalion rode this latest flood; the land below them careened southward, until Noah’s barge bumped or was bumped by the summit of Mt. Ararat, and Deucalion’s life saving chest ran aground on Mt. Parnassus.

There are remnants of tablelands in a great many places throughout the world; here layers of sedimentary rocks, which previously have been below the surface of the earth are at the surface in the form of gouged out ends or sides of mountains, butts and hills, exposing great numbers of the successively created horizontal stratifications, all cut off cleanly, stripped from top to bottom.

Typical examples can be seen at Monument Canyon, Arizona, in Yellowstone National Park, in South Dakota and western Nebraska, near Banff in the Canadian Rockies, near New Haven, Connecticut, and at the Delaware Water Gap. Most of these cutaway mountains and butts represent what was left when the waters of a great deluge tore away all the land excepting the gouged sections still standing intact as mountains.

The exposure of the inner layers of these ravaged mountains is indicative of the force of the impact of land and water during the cataclysms produced by the careenings of the globe.

Another reason for the occurrence of older rock formations on top of younger is the transportation work of glaciers. The compound word "Ice Age" created only about 100 years ago, and the ice age theory, suggested at that time, enabled puzzled geologists to account for the appearance of "foreign" rock materials in many places, and for many of the unconformities in successive earth strata.

A few miles south of Lake Erie, near Jamestown, N.Y., there is a huge erratic block of whitish stone perched on the summit of a small mountain range of brownish stone. It marks the spot it had reached when the glacier it was riding turned to water. It settled down like a Noah’s Ark.

The copper bearing rock formations of Arlington and Kings land, N.J., are not native, but are erratic blocks, transported by ice from some as yet unidentified region, and dropped when the ice melted. There are many similar erratic blocks in many parts of this and other countries.

Long Island, N.Y., was created by glacial action, being a terminal moraine in its north sections and an outwash plain in the south, formed by the heavy loads of silt, sand, and gravel carried by the streams emerging from beneath the last North American glacier. In Boston Harbor the islands are composed of glacial till and their long axes are parallel to the direction of the flow of the ice.

They are called drumlins, and were left by glaciers.

When the great size and carrying capacity of the recent consecutive North American polar glaciers are analyzed and fully appreciated, many other unconformities of earth, rocks and small mountains will be adjudged to have been glacially transported to their present locations.
 

The Oldest Rocks and the Age of the Earth

THE oldest rocks about which we can have any definite knowledge are those within our physical reach.

We know well the rocks from various earth strata that have been obtained from mine shafts, tunneling, and well drilling. We also know well rocks which have formerly been buried, perhaps three miles below the surface, but are now exposed as outcroppings. But what we know about other rocks must remain hypothetical being in the nature of philosophic geology.

Nevertheless, we do possess much valuable information. As tentative as our calculations and theories must be, they are supported by substantial evidence which serves as a basis for initial theorizing and as a guide for future research.

A legible record of the frequent careenings of our globe, with specimens of animal and plant life of each epoch, is contained in the great stone book whose pages are the successive strata of the earth’s materials thousands of which have been penetrated and have been sampled and identified on the basis of cores from drilling.

Men have explored beneath the surface of the earth to a depth of approximately five miles by boring in search of oil, and to lesser depths in search of water and other minerals. The evidence brought up in the drilling cores proves that the earth is built up of layers. There is no reason why the strata of the earth below those penetrated by the deepest well drilling should have been created in a different manner from the strata above.

From the depth of the strata encountered in the deepest drilling to date, their average thickness, and the total number of layers, we can estimate the age of the rocks penetrated. On the basis of data indicating the ultimate depth of the earth’s stratifications, we can estimate the age of the earth.

The deepest drilling on record penetrated 25,340 feet below the surface of the earth. It was drilled in 1913 by the Phillips Petroleum Company in the Pecos Field in Texas. The average strata of the earth through which it penetrated, as shown in the Spur Ranch Drilling data of the next chapter, were approximately 13 feet in thickness, and each stratum was created during an epoch lasting approximately 6,000 years.

Hence, 25,340 feet divided by 13 feet per layer yields the number of epochs transversed by the drilling 1,949. This figure multiplied by 6,000, the average duration of each of the recent epochs, gives the approximate age of the rock stratum at the bottom of the well 11,694,000 years.

The oldest rocks about which we have any accurate knowledge are therefore around twelve million years old. Factual evidence of rocks that are older is not available at present.

A further analysis of the age of rocks, based on the new theory of continuous creation and the constant buildup of materials of the earth, is given in Part III, "The Origin of the Earth’s Materials."

There is no known reason why the strata below those penetrated by the deepest well drilling should have been created in a different manner from the strata above. Thus, by determining the ultimate depth of rock strata in the earth, we can estimate the age of the earth in roughly the same manner that we determined the approximate age of the oldest rocks we know. This is done with the aid of depth soundings; by artificially creating shock waves through the earth, akin to the shock waves of earthquakes, we can measure the depth of the rock strata.

The estimated depth of solid materials which exist and transmit seismic waves between the core of the earth and ground level are discussed in Encyclopaedia Britannica and in Physics of the Earth, Vol. VII, published by the National Research Council. Terrestrial depth soundings have indicated that there is something about 1,850 miles below ground level from which the impulse waves bounce back to the surface. This is assumed to be the core of the earth.

In order to determine fairly exactly the age of the earth, however, the figures used so far must be adjusted.

We have said that presently available data show that the upper strata of earth materials each required about 6,000 years for their creation. This is the estimated duration of each epoch during which the upper layers were formed. However, it seems logical to assume that the time periods between careens of the globe were shorter when the globe was smaller.

Thus, 4,500 years between careens of the globe are assumed for this tentative calculation of the earth’s age, and the rate of buildup of earth materials is set at 9% feet per epoch instead of 13 feet.

According to these estimated figures, then, the number of feet from the surface of the earth to its core (1,850 x 5,280 ) divided by the number of feet per stratum (9%) indicates that the impulse waves travel through one million strata to reach the core. Taking 4,500 years as the duration of each epoch, we find the age of the earth to be approximately 4’2’ billion years.

As suggested throughout, these figures for the age of the earth and the age of the oldest rocks known are tentative. They are based solely on the Spur Ranch Drilling, but this one was more accurately supervised than the many commercial drilling. Many similarly supervised drilling in numerous areas the world over must be made and compared to enable one to make more perfect estimates.

More accurate data are also required regarding the duration of the successive epochs.

 

Epochs of Geological Stratification

THE word "epoch" as here used denotes the period of time, during which the globe rotated on any one axis of figure.

The careening globe theory is supported by evidence to the effect that most of the land areas of the earth have changed their latitudes, and that major changes in the arrangement of the materials of the earth’s surface occurred in, and marked the end of, each of these epochs.

The theory is one of normal and natural cataclysmic changes occurring at the end of each epoch, and of other normal and natural, but slower, changes being continuously wrought during each epoch, both types of change being the natural results of definitely identified operational and creative forces of nature.

The history of the earth as written in the rocks indicates that both kinds of change have taken place. Fossil evidence proves that many different kinds of animals, reptiles, fishes, shell fish and plants lived for long periods of time and then ceased to exist.

The fossil remains of extinct forms of life now buried in the depth of the earth show that they once lived on the surface of the earth or in surface waters. They are found in the oldest rocks known, and are found in cores brought up by the deepest oil well borings. They show us that the creation and development of animal and plant life, and of earth materials, in the upper five miles of the earth’s materials have been gradual and continuous for the whole earth.

The most recent epochs can be counted by an examination of the upper layers of the earth’s materials much as the age of a tree may be determined by counting the number of rings on its stump; and, just as the climate prevailing during each year of the tree’s growth can be learned from the condition of each ring, we can analyze the condition of each of the earth’s layers. There is a difference, however; while a tree has one ring per year, an epoch may be represented by several layers in any one local area, or some of the strata may be missing.

Numerous and various non-conformities will be found varying with the geographic location of each area during each epoch. For example: a local stratum may be developed from organic life, from vegetation and animals, together with dust and dirt carried by wind and water; this soil may then be all or partly washed away by the waters of one of the world deluges, or may become covered by sand and flood detritus or by the glacial drift of an ice age.

At this point in our examination of the evidence for the careening of the globe we can piece together the materials we do have to describe the recent geological epochs.

The age of the epoch in which we now live is tentatively estimated at 7,000 years. It will be a useful yardstick, especially when comparing the length of our epoch with the life span of earlier epochs. However, it may be adjusted when better evidence becomes available.

A period of 7,000 years conforms approximately to the historical period, beginning at or about 5000 B.C., and also to the time scales of the gorges produced by the Niagara and Mississippi Rivers.

Materials containing Carbon 14, properly identified as having been contemporaneous with the last great cataclysm of the earth, can be counted on to produce close estimates of the elapsed time since that cataclysm occurred. Carbon 14 dating of mammoths, rhinoceroses, mammoth trees, and other vegetable and animal remains buried in the tundra of Siberia and elsewhere at the time of that cataclysm, may disclose ages of less than 7,000 years. The more data we obtain on this subject the shorter the elapsed time seems to become.

The idea occurred to me that the perfectly preserved mammoths found in the Arctic tundra had possibly been reeled from a tropic to a frigid zone; and that, if so, perhaps I could find some evidence to that effect.

I imagined having an 8 inch globe of the earth in my hands, then throwing it into the air, and making it stay there and spin around. I thought that North and South America would ride along the Equator of Spin, due to their weight and the corresponding centrifugal force, provided I kept the globe spinning.

It seemed common sense to say that the earth would naturally rotate with its heaviest masses stretched out along the Equator, because the centrifugal force throws the greatest weights to the periphery or equator of any freely suspended rotating mass. And yet, quite to the contrary, the mighty Rocky Mountains and Andes Mountains are not now stretched along the Equator.

My theory was that if I could plot a circumference of the earth which might have been the Equator when the mammoths were living just prior to the latest careen of the globe then I might be able to find some evidence of a polar area 90 degrees of latitude away from that Equator, and this would prove the theory to be correct.

I was curious enough to make a trip one Saturday afternoon in 1913 to the Public Library of Erie, Pa., where I then lived. I took along a spool of ’e inch wide red ribbon, and tied the ribbon around a three foot globe of the earth, which stood in the middle of the main library room. I remember that I felt self-conscious at first, but soon guessed that the other library patrons must think that I was just one of the men who worked there, for they paid no attention to me, and I worked leisurely. What was routine at the time, now in retrospect looms as a momentous occasion.

I tied the first ribbon in a great meridian circle, or Equator like line, along the great ridges of the Rocky Mountains and the Andes Mountains. It divided the globe into two equal halves. On the opposite side of the globe, I was interested to note, the ribbon traversed East Asia and the shallow seas surrounding the Malay Peninsula.

I tried to make it represent the meridian or equatorial band traversing the heaviest land areas, and it seemed that the land zones it touched far outweighed any other circumferential belt of the earth’s surface that I could have selected.

Then I attached two other ribbons representing great circles of the earth at random places, but taking particular pains that they were at exactly a 90 degree angle to the first band. The idea was that I might find some evidences of former polar areas where these two upright ribbons intersected each other, for the intersections would mark the locations of polar centers, at the moment of time that my first ribbon was an actual under the sun equator.

One intersection was found to be at Lake Chad, Africa which I thought might give me a clue; the other intersection was located in the Pacific Ocean, and no clue came to mind. I recall writing "Lake Chad" on a piece of paper, with a resolve to try to find out something about it. I was looking for evidence of glacial action, or of a dent left in the earth by an ice cap.

I was astonished to discover just what I was looking for: the great Sudan Basin of Africa.

"In North Africa there is a vast space of upwards of four million square miles, extending from the Nile valley westward to the Atlantic coast, and from the plateau of Barbary in the north to the extremities of the basin of Lake Chad in the south, from which no single river finds its way to the sea. The whole of this space, however, appears to be furrowed by water channels in the most varied directions.

"From the inner slopes of the plateau of Barbary numerous wadys take a direction toward the great sand belt of the Erg, in which they terminate; a great series of channels appear to radiate from the higher portion of the Sahara, which lies immediately north of the tropic of cancer and in about 5 E. of Greenwich; another cluster radiates from the mountains of Tibesti, in the eastern Sahara."

Encyclopoedia Britannica, 9th edition, Vol. I, page 255.

This formation could be the natural result of the torrential run off of melting glacial ice, turned to water by a blazing tropical sun, when the Sudan Basin Ice Cap reeled from the North Pole of Spin and melted near the Equator, about 7,000 years ago. The innumerable watercourses without any apparent relation to one another remain as tell tale evidence.

Lake Chad has one outstanding peculiarity. It is a freshwater lake, and yet it does not have an outlet to the sea. There is not another lake like it on the surface of the globe.

It is generally understood that lake water remains fresh by surrendering its salts to the oceans, through run offs, or overflows. With the exception of Lake Chad, the large lakes without outlets to the sea are salty. They were filled with sea water when first created at the beginning of the present epoch. Some such as the Caspian Sea probably overflowed and lost their salt contents due to the excessive humidity created by the melting of the Sudan Basin Ice Cap and the eastward flowing air currents, but these lakes later shrank, lost their overflows, and have since accumulated mineral salts.

Salts are carried and brought in by the incoming tributary rivers and streams. As indicated before, the water levels of lakes are determined by the ratio of incoming water to evaporation. During the approximately 7,000 years of its existence Lake Chad has not accumulated sufficient salts from its tributaries to cause it to become salty. It remains a fresh water lake without an outlet to the sea.

During the rainy season Lake Chad overflows its normal basin. The Encyclopaedia Britannica statement adds that it fertilizes the wadys including the great wady or basin to the northeast, into which it overflows. This indicates that the overflow does not purge the lake of salts to any extent, because if it did, the soil in the overflowed areas would become salty and not fertilized.

The Equator of the last epoch of time prior to our own was a line along the Rocky and Andes Mountains. If the earth careened 80 degrees of latitude, instead of 90 degrees, then Lake Chad would not be the polar center of the previous North Pole Ice Cap. Lake Chad is located several hundred miles southeast of the center of the Sudan Basin.

The Sudan Basin is in the center of the north lobe of that continent. The accumulating ice mass, which created the great depression of that basin, was landlocked and therefore it did not have a chance to flow off the land into the sea through the force of gravity, in the manner that the glacial ice now flows off the smaller continent of Antarctica. This fact, together with the probability that a smaller ice cap grew at the South Pole of that epoch, would appear to account for Epoch No. I B.P. having had a shorter life span than the epochs just preceding and following.

Further studies of the channels cut by the watercourses in the Sudan Basin and of the glacial striations cut on Canadian rocks may be expected to show that neither Lake Chad nor Hudson Bay were the exact centers of the North Pole Ice Caps of those two epochs.

But, Lake Chad and Hudson Bay give us two points of reference; they have moved approximately equal distances from the Pole of Spin each time that the earth has careened and are therefore useful references to the approximate polar points of their epochs.

The Hudson Bay Ice Cap has left a more sharply marked, and larger, dent in the earth than has the subsequent Sudan Basin Ice Cap. The Hudson Bay Ice Cap took a roughly 60% longer time to grow and therefore made a larger and deeper basin than the Sudan Basin Ice Cap. The process of isostasy, tending to raise sunken areas, adds to the difficulty in reading the records correctly.

When the Sudan Basin Ice Cap moved away from the North Pole of Spin, it did not go all the way to the Equator, because by the time it reached its present position, the new bulge of the earth had become established. The Sudan Basin Ice Cap and the new bulge of the earth were soon traveling along together, at the rotation speed of the earth or about 1,000 miles per hour.

The careening speed of the Ice Cap had practically vanished and its eccentric pull of centrifugal force had now been changed from a sideways pull to an upward and outward stabilizing force. Isostatic equilibrium had once again become established, subject to readjustment through earthquakes, until the Ice Cap had completely melted.

Thus Epoch No. 1 B.P. ended at the time of the latest world flood, and the present epoch commenced. During Epoch No. 1 B.P. the Sudan Basin area of Africa was occupying the area at the North Pole of Spin. The continents of North and South America then lay in tandem on one side of the globe, along the Equator, and the eastern parts of Siberia and China were on the opposite side.

The time estimate suggested is based on recent advances in pinpointing geological time by measuring the amount of Carbon 14 remaining in sample specimens of wood. Wood from an ancient forest, uncovered in a lower stratum of the earth at Two Rivers, Wisconsin geologically tied in with the ending of the latest North American Ice Cap, often referred to as the Wisconsin Ice Age was analyzed for its Carbon 14 content..

Its age was found to be approximately 11,400 years old. The literature dealing with this ancient Wisconsin forest contains many reports on its age, varying from 11,000 to 12,000 years. I have chosen to use the report by the foremost authority in this field, Willard F. Libby, who arrives at a figure of 11,400 years.

If we subtract 7,000 years, the estimated age of our present epoch, from 11,400 years, we are left with 4,400 years as the duration of Epoch No. 1 B.P. The figure is subject to correction when better data become available.

During Epoch No. 2 B.P. the geological dent of the Hudson Bay watershed contained the North Pole and its ice cap, while South America, Africa, Borneo, and India lay along the Equator. During that epoch clay beds were laid down by silt, presumably carried by glacial streams flowing in summer from beneath the edges of the Hudson Bay Ice Cap. Each layer of clay called a varve corresponds to a single year’s growth of the clay beds; thus the approximate duration of that epoch may be set at 7,000 years.

The identification of this former North Pole area is based on the fact that its distance from Lake Chad in the Sudan Basin of Africa is approximately the same as the present distance of Lake Chad from the North Pole, which, in turn, is the distance through which the Lake Chad area moved during the latest careen of the globe. All careening moves cover about 80 degrees of latitude.

The depression now occupied by the Caspian Sea seems to have been the location of the North Pole during Epoch No. 3 B.P., because its bowl as well as that of the Black Sea was formed by a depression caused by an ice cap.

The Caspian Sea is located in a large low lying land area called the Caspian Depression and is the focal drainage center which gathers the gravitational downhill water flow of several large rivers, including the Ural and Volga rivers. This sunken Caspian area has geological similarities to the depressed areas in which Hudson Bay in Canada and Lake Chad in Africa are located.

All three are drainage centers for extensive river systems in very large areas, and have been depressed into basin formations by the weight of the ice caps of former epochs.

We know that each successive ice cap leaves a depression in the land, and each careen of the globe moves both the North and South Pole ice caps distances of about 80 degrees of latitude around 5,500 miles.

With this information as a guide, we can identify the locations of former poles of many successive epochs. We find approximately the same distances between the Caspian Sea and Hudson Bay, between Hudson Bay and Lake Chad, between Lake Chad and the present North Pole.

The one observable clue to the duration of the Caspian Basin epoch No. 3 B.P. is that it did not permit a ready flow off of the ice to the oceans. It appears to have been landlocked. Therefore, it is assumed to have had a shorter life span than the Hudson Bay Basin epoch No. 2 B.P. It was more like the Sudan Basin Ice Cap of Epoch No. 1 B.P. Possibly, a duration of 5,000 years is a fair estimate.

The recent geological history of the earth subject to being corrected when better data become available may be summarized as follows:

• Epoch No. 3 B.P. began about 23,400 years ago and lasted around 5,000 years. The Caspian Depression was at the North Pole of Spin. The New York State mastodons were living in a tropical climate.
   

• Epoch No. 2 B.P. lasted around 7,000 years. The Hudson Bay was at the North Pole. The New York State mastodons were in cold storage like the Siberian mammoths of today.
   

• Epoch No. 1 B.P. lasted around 4,400 years. The Sudan Basin of Africa was at the North Pole. The New York State mastodons were buried in the tropics. The Siberian mammoths were grazing in an Eden like climate in or near the tropics.

Our own Epoch has already lasted about 7,000 years. The Arctic Ocean is at the North Pole. The mammoths are buried in frozen tundra in Siberia and Alaska.

The mystery of how the earth was created and built up can now be explained through the rational and understandable display of factual evidence. We now know just how the various layers of rock, sand, shale, etc. with their telltale specimens of former animal and plant life came to be laid down in the strata in which they are now found.

For example: A piece of live fresh wood resembling red cedar was found during the excavation made for the foundation of the Chase Manhattan Bank building at 18 Pine Street, New York City. It was found three feet below the top surface of a layer of hardpan, which in turn was about sixty feet below the surface. The tree probably grew in Epoch No. 2 B.P.

In the excavation made for the foundation of the New York Telephone Company’s building at Barclay and West Streets, New York City, the contractors came across the prostrate trunks of several juniper trees with bark and branches intact. At 45 feet below high tide level they came across a bed of peat eighteen inches thick. The peat bed had grown where found; probably the trees also. These might tentatively be classed as growths of Epoch No. 1 B.P.

Parts of whale skeletons have been found on Long Island, N.Y. These are tentatively classed as belonging to our present epoch, because during this period of time the ocean waters are assumed to have receded and now make up part of the ice and snow in the Antarctic Ice Cap; also, the dearth of top soil on Long Island lends support to the idea that it has not had its present size during the approximately 7,000 years of our epoch.

Clay beds abound in the vicinity of New York City; they are found with layers of sand, gravel, loam or topsoil, etc., superimposed upon them. Facts such as these agree with the theory of the careenings of the globe.

By assuming that there was land at the edge of the Hudson Bay Ice Cap, during Epoch No. 2 B.P., it follows that silt from the glacial streams settled in lakes or rivers and formed these clay beds. Since then, two world deluges and two epochs of time have occurred, during which the layers of overlying materials now being found were developed.

Clay beds are normally laid down in layers of silt with different colors and textures. These varves contain a record of each year; in some instances they indicate the climate, rainfall, and vegetation, by the color, thickness, and texture of each varve.

A physical time scale for our present epoch has been developed from a study of varied clays by the Swedish scientist Gerard De Geer. He fixed the beginning of the post glacial epoch at about 8,700 years ago. He counted the number of varves in clay beds in river valleys running north south, assuming a gradual ascension, like a long staircase, as the ice retreated northward, and tying in the top varve of one clay bed with a lower varve of a higher bed. He called it the Swedish Time Scale.

De Geer reported the following numbers of clay varves from locations presumed to have been at the Ice Cap’s edges:
 

His time scale shows a longer period than the River Gorge Time Scales. This could be attributed to the clay varves of the same year having been counted at two different locations.

Below the 8,700^th varve, approximately, De Geer came upon a giant varve. This evidence fits the theory of the careening globe, because the giant varve marks an abrupt change in the formation of the clay deposits occurring about 8,700 years ago. There is also evidence to indicate that Sweden was located in a different and warmer latitude during the previous epoch of time.

The De Geer Time Scale shows that it is possible to ascertain the approximate duration or length of time of many former epochs, by counting the varves in clay, slate, and shale deposits.

Many counts of the number of varves in clay beds have been made and registered, but no systematic attempt has as yet been made to associate the numbers arrived at with epochs of time.

Reappearance of Organic Matter in Clays

THAT vegetation which is blotted out beneath the glaciers of an ice age reappears in the clay beds which have been formed by the silt and other matter carried by summer streams flowing beneath some of the glaciers.

This burden of various kinds of matter carried by flowing waters is deposited on the bottoms of lakes and rivers when the velocities and carrying capacities of the waters have been lowered or reduced to zero.

Clays are partly derived from vegetation, many of them possessing considerable percentages of organic matter. This appears in colloidal particles from less than .002 millimeters in diameter down to sub microscopic. They are the parts of the clays which absorb moisture, and all bear a negative electrical charge when in contact with water, thus showing a certain relationship to cellulose and carbon, both of which are also vegetable matter and acquire negative charges when in contact with water.

The organic matter in clays has been generally attributed to animalculae, algae, and microscopic growths; but tropical forests were another available source of the organic matter found in some of the clay beds developing at the edges of glaciers in former ice ages such as the five which recently prevailed in northern North America and similar to the ice age now embalming Antarctica and Greenland with glaciers.

Each time the globe has careened, tropical land areas, covered with vegetation and forests, have moved to the polar regions. Theoretically, the vegetation must have become crushed and pulped into colloidal particles by the weight and movement of the overlying ice masses. The lower varves will correspond to the earlier years of the epochs during which they were laid down; the upper layers will similarly correspond to the later years of the same epochs.

More organic or vegetable matter will be found in the lower varves and less in the upper varves. Research on the structures of clays may eventually enable us to identify some of the organic matter as having come from crushed forests.

Proofs of the theory that vegetation covered the land when the ice cap first commenced to form should evolve from further study of the varves in the clay beds at Hackensack, N.J., Wrenshall, Minn., and elsewhere.

It is natural to assume that such vegetation, when crushed and ground into colloidal particles, would float in the waters underneath the glaciers, and would thus be carried off and deposited as basic elements of the clay beds. As the limited amount of vegetation was thus disposed of, there must have been less and less available, so that the upper and later varves of the clay beds should show less organic and more mineral silt; the lower or earlier varves, on the other hand, should show more cellulose or organic matter in proportion to the inorganic materials.

Much carbon generally believed to be of organic origin is found in the oldest rocks, classed as Pre Cambrian; but here it is generally found in an amorphous condition, and this may be postulated as having been caused by the pressures and attritions to which the organic materials were subjected. For example, rocks of the Laurentian Shield of Canada are classed as Precambrian because of the lack of "guide fossils," and for no other major reason.

They reveal the scouring of the ice cap of the Ice Age that followed the Life Age which had developed the organic materials ground to a pulp by the ice masses. Carbon appears in some of the black shales of the Lake Superior region. That area was so far inland that the glaciers apparently did not have a chance to purge themselves of the carbon by emptying it into the oceans, as they did to the east, north, and south.

The organic materials of the Laurentian Shield have become so crushed and reduced in the tillage that few organic forms can be identified in those rocks. It is probable that the same kind of pulpification of the tillage is in process, right now, at the bottom of the Antarctic Ice Cap described later under the section on POLAR regions and it is questionable whether any guide fossils will be found in the rocks that form the floor of the ice bowl of the Antarctic Ice Cap.

Under the presently accepted theory the rock floor of that ice cap should therefore automatically be classified as Precambrian, due to lack of guide fossils on its surface areas.

Georges Cuvier of France and William Smith of England announced their independent discoveries, at the close of the eighteenth century and beginning of the nineteenth, to the effect that each stratum of the earth contains fossils peculiar to itself, and that the successive earth layers can be classified accordingly and to some extent dated as to age.

Cuvier found bones of mammoths and of many other extinct prehistoric species of life, and also of many extant species, in the different underground layers of the earth in the environs of Paris. He revealed that a typical series of successively created earth strata shows:

• earth layer with fresh water shells, indicating that a lake had once existed there;

• earth layer with marine shells, indicating that the area bad once been part of the ocean bed;

• earth layer with fresh water shells; earth layer or marl;

• earth layer with marine shells; earth layer of clay no shells;

• earth layer of chalk, formed from skeletons of globigerina, which once lived in the ocean.

Cuvier saw with his own eyes and reported the effects of cataclysms in the formations of the layers of the earth. He found that the changes brought about had been sudden, without gradation. He looked for a possible cause and referred to the successive catastrophic changes as revolutions of the earth. He conjectured that the North Pole once had been in the area of the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii).

Since Cuvier’s days geophysical discoveries of major importance have been made; they include:

Much of the mystery previously connected with earth strata, and the problem why successive types of fossils appear therein, are fully explained when these new discoveries are added to those reported by Cuvier.

A communication from the Chief, Paleontology and Stratigraphy Branch, U.S. Geological Survey, states:

"The paleontological collections of the U.S. Geological Survey verify that in some localities in the United States and its territories rock strata containing alternating horizons of marine and non marine fossils do occur."

Again the usefulness of identifying the different species of fossils in each earth stratum is emphasized for horizon markers, (Geological term: deposits of certain period, identified by fossils present.) and lists of fossils are given for each formation, by W. M. Winton and W. S. Adkins in University of Texas Bulletin, No. 1931, June 1, 1939.

They state:

"Some fossils appear in recurrent zones, that is, zones between which the fossils in question have never been found."

Atlantis - Plato’s legendary land - receives a theoretical validation by the discovery of fresh water types of diatoms at the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean.

Geologists of the Riksmuseum, Stockholm, Sweden, have examined cores taken from the sea bottom of the tropical Atlantic Mid Ridge, about 12,000 feet below sea level, and have identified algae exclusively of freshwater origin; this is proof that this area with its fresh water lake in which the diatoms lived was once above sea level.

The change in altitude is postulated to have occurred about 7,000 years ago, when the great Sudan Basin Ice Cap, which grew at the North Pole of Figure of the last previous epoch, reached maturity and was moved to the tropics. The fresh water lake land with its diatoms was at that time rolled around to its present tropical underwater position on the globe.

The former position of this lake land is determined by its distance from the great Sudan Basin of Africa, which, as we have seen, is a telltale depression in the land created by the weight of the North Pole Ice Cap of that epoch.
 

In theory, this lake land area was formerly positioned on the globe, in relation to the last previous North Pole of Figure, at about where the State of Oregon is now located in relation to the present North Pole of Figure. It was transposed from about 44 N. Latitude and 120 W. Longitude to where it is now located at about 14 N. Latitude and 30 W. Longitude.

It was moved into the bulge of the earth at a latitude where the ocean level is about four miles higher than it was at its previous latitude (four miles further from the center of the earth); thus, quite naturally, it is now under water.

Cores from the ocean bottoms, recently taken in the Arctic and the southeastern Pacific Oceans, have been dated by radium chemical analyses (table) :

(Saks, Below and Lapina in Our Present Concepts of the Geology of the Central Arctic, translated from Russian, in publication T 196 R, Defense Research Board, Canada; and Jack L. Hough in Journal of Geology, May 1953, No. 3. )

The Russian scientists list alternating horizons as cold and warm. Numbers 2 4 6 are listed as cold. Numbers 3 and 5 are listed as warm. This is followed by the assumption that when the climate was warm foraminifera were present and when cold the foraminifera were absent in the core sections. This is obviously an erroneous assumption, because foraminifera are reported present in horizon No. 1 and we know that the climate is now cold.

Commenting on the lowest horizon reached (No. 6 ), they state,

"It seems that... a considerable part of the Arctic Shelf was dry land."

The absence of foraminifera in certain sections of the cores indicates that the areas were not, at that time underwater. Foraminifera are found in both warm and cold waters. A dry climate, with sparse rainfall is indicated for the core sections without foraminifera, because the arctic area is surrounded by continents.

Many scientific papers have contained reports of the different kinds of foraminifera growing in cold and in warm ocean waters. Their presence in the successive strata, found in cross sections of cores taken from the sea bottoms, helps to identify the successive cold and warm sequences of former life at a particular location.

Alternating horizons of the earth’s strata with marine and non marine fossils are not peculiar to arctic regions but are observed in many regions. Drilling, mine shafts, and ravaged cliff sides in many random locations have disclosed marine and non marine strata in alternating layers, and also alternating cold and warm climate fossils, indicating recurrent relocations of latitude and longitude for all areas of the earth’s surface.

For example, the ratio of Oxygen 18 to Oxygen 16 in calcium carbonate (CaC0³), globogerinaidae shells, is a function of water temperatures at the time of the growth of the sea shells a sort of geological thermometer.

A communication from Captain Charles W. Thomas, (now rear admiral retired, U.S. Coast Guard), a noted ice navigator of both the Antarctic and Arctic regions, states that cores taken from the ocean bottom off the coast of Antarctica and examined by him lead him to conclude that the South Pole Ice Cap is not of great antiquity, but that it is a recent phenomenon, its age being no more than a few thousand years.

The cores showed the ocean bottom to have been formed in layers. The top layer contains cold water radiolarians and deposition of ice transported sediments. Below that layer is a layer from which the cold water diatoms are missing; but they occur again in a lower layer.

The repetitive occurrences, in alternate layers, of approximately the same fossil materials in the earth’s strata disclosed by borings made at different places on the earth’s surface confirms the theory of the successive careenings of the globe. Comparing fossils of fresh water and salt water foraminifera, diatoms and algae furnishes clues to the conditions under which each horizon of the strata was formed.

The fossils found in successive earth strata testify to the fact that the layers of earth under any particular land area of the present time have been located during former epochs at many different places relative to the axis of rotation of the earth; the fossils show that these earth strata have been both ocean beds and upland areas in successive epochs, and they also confirm the fact that life existed in tropical, temperate, and cold climates as evidenced by the successive strata.

The fossils testify to the rotation of the earth on successive random Axes of Figure because the variations exhibited by the fossils in the successive layers indicate changes in climate as well as changes from upland to marine locations, and vice versa; and the combination of a change in climate and of a change to or from a marine location can be accounted for only by a change in the location of the Axis of Figure of the earth.

The following tabulation is the driller’s record of the deep boring at Spur Ranch, near Rotan, in Fisher County,

Texas. It is taken from an article by J. A. Uddin in No. 365 of The University of Texas Bulletin, Scientific Series 28, 1914. The drilling was carefully supervised for the purpose of getting a typical picture of the earth conditions underlying a spot selected at random.

These carefully compiled drill data show that there were 337 strata in 4,489 feet an average of thirteen feet per stratum. Some of the lesser thicknesses especially where they occur in sequence may represent time periods of only fractions of epochs.

Some of the greater thicknesses may have resulted from drilling through slanting strata. These two different conditions may average out; but it is an assumption that can be corrected when better data become available.

On this assumption we will base our estimate of the age of the earth and the age of the oldest rocks that have been sampled.

The nature of the earth conditions underlying a section of the Rocky Mountains, is indicated by the record of the drilling of a water well, furnished by Mr. N. W. Draper and taken from Colorado Geological Survey, Bulletin 28, 1925.

The well is located 1 1/2 miles south of Grand junction, in west central Colorado, just west of the Continental Divide.

As an example of the earth conditions that lie under a section of the Appalachian Mountains, I reprint here a part of the report of a typical boring, taken from West Virginia Geological Survey, County Reports, 1921, Nicholas County: The log of the 20,521 feet deep well drilling by the Superior Oil Company, in Sublette County, Wyoming setting a record for depth up to 1950 shows for the last two miles "Alternating sandstones and gray shale with sandy shale and shaley sand to total depth. "
 

The presence of successive repetitive earth strata is indicated by the records of drilling and borings for oil, minerals, and water, and also by mine shafts, in all parts of the world. Practically all the records show that the borings have encountered sedimentary formations in layer after layer.

These records confirm the fact that the globe was built up stratum by stratum, under conditions which were changing constantly for any one area, thus confirming the repetitive careenings of the globe.

Drill logs also disclose that there is an apparent tendency for the globe to repeat its careenings, for a time, over almost the same reel and re reel, as disclosed by the recurrence of identical materials in its alternate layers.

These facts support the evidence found in Nova Scotia, referred to above, which contain ten layers of fossil trees with eleven layers of barren rock between and above and below and which indicate that the globe careened back and forth within a certain definite pattern or cycle during those epochs.

The records also support our deductions based on the 27 layers of fossil trees in Yellowstone Park, the nineteen layers of coal in Nova Scotia, at the Bay of Fundy, and the successive earth strata with fossil trees reported at frozen Wood Hill in the New Siberian Islands.

Similarly, many coal beds occur one above the other, often with frigid zone materials separating by very sharp cleavage planes quite a number of the strata and then above and below there are materials which are the accumulations of entirely different conditions of latitude and environment.
 

Magnetic Rocks

TELLTALE magnetic rocks found in North America and Europe show that in previous epochs, between the recurrent careenings of the globe, they were magnetized in directions different from that in which the earth’s electric currents are now magnetizing similar rocks.

Earth electric currents are today magnetizing various types of rocks so that they will point north south when freely suspended. They are composed of magnetic iron oxide, or magnetite, and have been called natural magnets. They are believed to have been the first compasses used by man.

The angular direction of the magnetic pointings of many of these old rocks are now randomly oriented to the present polar indicating that in former epochs the North and South Magnetic Poles occupied entirely different positions on the surface of the globe than they do now.

Some of the nonconventionally pointing magnetic rocks are found to be slanted obliquely toward the present ground surfaces, indicating that there have been geological disturbances since they were formed and magnetized in horizontal layers.

Page 86

Thirteen locations of nonconventionally pointing magnetic rocks have been tabulated by S. K. Runcorn in Nature Magazine, September 3, 1955, page 425. lie classified rocks of eight geological eras from Pre Cambrian to Triassic occurring in Great Britain, North America, and other countries.

John V. Graham, in Journal of Geophysical Research of September, 1955, page 327, states that "Enough observations have been made so that there is no longer any question that a useful fraction of old rocks retain to this day the magnetisms they received in remote times."

The most logical explanation for the telltale randomly oriented magnetic rock materials is the recurrent careenings of the globe.

The variation in directional pointings of magnetic rocks in old formations is a corollary and proof of the frequent shiftings of the earth’s Axis of Figure caused by the careenings of the globe. Earth electric currents are discussed more fully under "Volcanoes and Hot Springs" (page 236) , in Part III "Origin of the Earth’s Materials."

Minerals

CHARACTERISTIC formations or manner of occurrence in nature of certain minerals, such as coal, oil, salt, gold, fit naturally and perfectly into the pattern of the theory of the recurrent careenings of the globe.

Nothing but such careenings explain the locations and forms of these minerals.

COAL

Coal is found in all parts of the world, including the antarctic continent, the arctic islands, Greenland, Alaska, and in all of the temperate and tropical zones. It is being mined under the bed of the Pacific Ocean at Lota, Chile, and under the Atlantic Ocean off England, Nova Scotia, and elsewhere. It is mined in the Rocky Mountains, in the Appalachian Mountains, in the Urals and many other mountains.

 

The coal beds found in polar regions are the results of vegetable growths which accumulated when those areas enjoyed temperate or tropical climates. Layers of coal were formed from masses of vegetation, consisting of leaves, sticks, and trees, which had become water logged and then sank to the bottom of depressions in the land such as swamps, lakes, and rivers just as vegetable mucks accumulate at similar locations in our own time.

This process resulted in the accumulation during the entire epoch of a bottom layer of vegetable matter, with some mineral contents. All other detached vegetation was exposed to the air and was slowly burned up by oxidation, just as is happening all around us today.

Vegetable muck deposits, which are now found as coal, have been protected from oxidation, i.e. slow combustion, by being covered with superimposed layers of earth materials. The churning up and dispersal of huge volumes of earth materials by the great deluges which accompany each careening of the globe, create the layered condition now existing in the structure of the earth.

The coal fields of Pennsylvania show five at some places seven horizontal layers of coal with layers of shale or slate interleaved between the coal beds. This evidence indicates that these areas were alternately warm or tropical, at which time the vegetable muck which later became coal was gathered, and then polar, when the silt collected, being carried by water and also forming beds at the bottom of depressions.

The vegetable muck was shifted to a polar climate by a careen of the globe and, being covered with water which immediately froze solid, was protected from slow combustion while in the polar region.

 

Into certain of these muck bottomed depressions there flowed, during the summer, waters containing silt which settled down to form an additional protective covering for the muck. The layer of silt also prevented oxidation when the muck was again careened back to a temperate or tropical zone. The silt eventually became shale or slate.

Having explained the process through which vegetable mucks turn to coal and glacial silts become clay, shale and slate, we notice that there are features common to both formations, and also features peculiar to each. A common feature is that both coal and silts require a depression in the land, because they both form on lake bottoms, etc., from materials which once floated and then sank in these waters.

The features peculiar to each are:

(1) coal represents warm climate ingredients which fell into the waters and sank;

(2) clay silts represent polar ingredients which were carried by the waters in summer and sank to the bottom, forming a layer above the muck.

Such a series of superimposed alternate layers of coal and slate indicate that the particular area once was a basin of depressed land created by one of the ancient ice caps once existing in that location.

Thirty coal beds have been found in Pennsylvania and 63 in Nova Scotia in vertical earth strata indicating possibly as many separate and distant epochs during which these lands were in latitudes and climates suitable to the development and accumulation of the vegetable mucks from which coal is usually formed.

There is always the possibility that a basic coal stratum, laid down in any one epoch, may be found to be divided into seams, separated by interleaved strata and caused by nothing but local disturbances; but there is general agreement that each layer of coal buried in the bowels of the earth was once vegetable materials growing upon the earth’s surface.

Coal is a product of the land; but oil, salt, and gold appear to be products of the sea. All have been created during successive epochs. The geographical areas in which the greatest supplies are located have been determined by the careenings of the globe. They are all telltale evidence of such careenings.

Starting with the theory of global careenings to explain the perfectly preserved conditions of mammoths, I looked elsewhere in an endeavor to find supporting evidence.

 

Studying the formations containing various minerals I found that coal, oil, salt, and supplies are located have been determined by the careenings of but I discovered no adequate explanation for these materials being located in earth strata at varying depths.

 

OIL

I have come across seven different theories to explain the formation of petroleum or oil in the strata of the earth; and only one of them seems to be able to stand the acid test of factual evidence.

 

That theory holds that oil comes from fish. The theory of fish being the origin of oil is ably and adequately expounded in the literature on the subject; but, in all these treatises there has been a "missing link." A cataclysm was required to kill fish in such enormous quantities, and means for preserving them from decay and oxidation immediately after death were also necessary. That link is now adequately supplied by the theory of recurrent global careenings.

The most widely held theory today is that oil principally has been produced by animalculae; but if that theory is correct, we could expect to find oil widely distributed and not concentrated in certain locations. The theory that oil comes mainly from the fish in the seas of ancient times accounts for its being present in certain localities.

Animal life in the sea is estimated to be immensely greater in total numbers than life on the land, for the sea covers approximately 71 per cent of the surface of the globe and supports life for miles below the surface whereas animal life on land is confined to a single restricted surface. A small part of the great abundance of marine life has been trapped and converted to oil at the time of each recurrent careening of the globe.

Fishes’ graveyards, containing their skeletons abound in successive rock strata the world over, in rocks belonging to all of the various systems of formation. The fish skeletons are found in closely packed layers, in an astonishing variety of different sizes and numbers. Estimates have been made to the effect that the beds must have been many thousands of square miles in extent.

 

The Old Red Sandstone found in all parts of the world has been referred to as belonging to the "Age of Fishes," because the remains of whole shoals of fish are found in it almost everywhere.

A hundred years ago Hugh Miller studied the massed fish graveyards in the Old Red Sandstones of Scotland and concluded that the fish must have remained undisturbed in quiet waters following their death. He reached that conclusion without knowing anything about the careenings of the globe, which produce just those conditions. (The Old Red Sandstones, published in 1858.)

Massed skeletons of river bullheads have been found in profusion, with their two spines at nearly right angles to the plates of the head, this being a sign that they died of asphyxiation like the mammoth mentioned on page 20.

 

Masses of fish skeletons with fins spread to the full, not relaxed as in a quiet death, are common; and certain individual specimens have been preserved with traces of color on their skin showing that they were entombed before decomposition of the softer parts had taken place.

Like coal, oils are found in all geological formations, from the earliest to the latest. Oils are derived from a number of sources from fish, whales, and other animals, from trees, shrubs, and plants. Commercial oils are manufactured from menhaden or silver herring. Fish are the main source of the mineral oils of the earth; this is shown to be so by an outline of the theory of why and how fish changed into oil.

Consider what happens when a body of water the size of Lake Superior is careened to a polar area and its waters freeze solid; or, if a section of the ocean becomes landlocked in a polar area after a careen of the globe.

 

The waters immediately become covered with ice. All kinds of fish, by the thousands, are alive and swim about in the water.

 

This is the sequence of events which follows:

• The body of water becomes hermetically sealed by the ice cover and the oxygen in the air is prevented from being absorbed by the water;
   

• The usual percentage of oxygen present in the water is exhausted by the demands of the organic life;
   

• The fish all die of suffocation, and they sink to the bottom;
   

• The dead fish do not float to the surface, since the lack of oxygen and the coldness of the water prevent the creation of gases of decomposition;
   

• The water itself turns to ice leaving a residue of its mineral salts and silt as a layer covering the dead fish.

When the masses of dead fish, from former epochs of time, were again returned to a warm climate by the next careen of the earth, the depressions in which they rested continued to be bottoms of lakes; they remained filled with water which gathered more silt while the frozen fish were thawing out.

 

The cell structure of the fish had been expanded and disrupted by freezing, just like the cell structure of an apple is disrupted by frigid temperatures. When thawed out, and subjected to pressures by the overlying strata, the hydrocarbons oil readily separated out.

At the bottom of this new lake a layer of muck, dirt, and silt gradually formed, and removed the fish remains one layer farther from the surface of the earth. The oils could not float to the surface because they were underneath a covering layer of residual mineral salts and a layer of silt. The oils, therefore, oozed still farther downward through the earth strata above which they had been formed until stopped by a rock obstruction. Today oils are being found in saturated reservoir rocks and sands just above or below geological obstructions by which they have been trapped.

When oils are found below such obstructions and gush on being tapped, or when they ooze from the ground, such oil motion is reasonably explained as due to changes in local, internal earth pressures and centrifugal forces, these being natural consequences of changes in the location of the earth’s Axis of Figure.

For a long time many geologists thought that oil could only be found in "domes." These were searched for underground. Then, oil was discovered in buried and forgotten shore lines of underground seas. Geological horizons of ancient sea bottoms are, at sporadic locations, fish graveyards, and oil has been found in abundance in ancient underground coral reefs.

J. J. Newberry has described fossil fish of all sizes found in Pennsylvania and in surrounding states. See The Paleozoic Fishes of North America, in U.S. Geological Survey Monograph No. 16, 1889.) Naturally, oil has been found in some of the same locations.

The worldwide distribution of underground oil like coal, salt, and gold confirms the theory of the recurrent careenings of the globe and the build up of its various strata, epoch by epoch.
 

 

SALT

The great underground deposits of soluble mineral salts, found in many strata under the surface of the earth, can be rationally accounted for by the theory that they are located in what was once the bottom of a depression in the land which was filled with sea water when a flood inundated the land; or their location marks the bottom of a salt sea of long ago which became landlocked because of the earth’s careening, its waters having evaporated or frozen to ice leaving salts as a residue.

The bottoms of salt beds are lens shaped. Their cross sections are like those of lakes, and this shows that they were lake or sea bottoms at the time the salt residues were accumulated.

In central New York State seven successive salt beds have been discovered, and in the southwest there are thirty or more separate beds of salt, all derived from the evaporation of sea water, as pointed out by Charles M. Riley in Our Mineral Resources, page 259.

 

He states that layers of gypsum underlie the rocksalt in mines; he also stresses the fact that gypsum precipitates from sea water after 37 per cent of the water has evaporated, but common salt does not precipitate (crystallize) until over 93 per cent of the sea water has evaporated.

 

The result of this fractional precipitation is that layers of gypsum arc laid clown before the salt layers.
 

 

GOLD

Having seen how fish change into oil when a landlocked section of the ocean or a lake turns into ice, and how salt becomes a residue from evaporation or freezing, we will take a close look at the gold that was present in those same sea waters.

Gold together with most of the common elements of the earth is found in the oceans. The Encyclopaedia Britannica states that gold is present in minute quantities in most rocks and is widely disseminated in igneous rocks, of which, however, it makes up an extremely small percentage. Gold exists every where in rocks, in sands, and gravels.

 

There are important gold fields in every continent. A rich deposit was found in a bed of lignite in Japan and another in the Cambrian coal fields of Wyoming. Most of the gold crystals in ores and rocks are too small to be seen; but in California there are larger crystals, of the cubic system, an inch or more across.

The gold in the ocean was left behind, like the fish and the salt, when the landlocked seas froze or evaporated and thus abandoned the areas in which they had been trapped.

 

Apparently the gold crystallized out just as the salt did, and many of the larger crystals occur in lodes; these have been attributed to the concentration of the residual liquid before its final disappearance. The distorted, rounded forms of many of the larger crystals are due to the pressure and movement of temporary, overlying glacial ice; while the wide diffusion of gold in rocks throughout the world attests to the frequency of the rollarounds of the globe and indicate the great number of locations in which the gold of ocean waters has been left behind as a residue.

 

For example, gold in South Africa is found in "reefs", which have been developed on a rock stratum which was originally horizontal, but is now tilted. Mine shafts that start at the surface outcroppings follow the downward sloping strata, or synclines, to depths of two miles.

The Ocean

OCEAN FLOOR

The floor of the ocean may be likened to mountains, hills, ravines, gorges, plains, and river beds.

 

These areas happen to be submerged in our present epoch, but their topography is not essentially different from the land areas now rising above sea level. The fact that these conditions exist is ample proof that there was a time when they were dry land.

There were also times when the world’s present land areas were below sea level; in that era originated the marine fossils now in evidence as well as the strata of limestone rocks which were first created in the ocean by the shells of countless shell fish and corals. These rocks provide positive proof that these areas were formerly under water.

The ocean floor and the beaches of former epochs consisted of sedimentary layers of sand, shells, corals, etc.; they were later metamorphosed into sandstones and limestones many of which are found today as rock in the mountains, while countless others form sections of the earth’s upper strata.

What was at one time the floor of the ocean may today be a mountain top. Ovid (born in 43 B.C.), in Metamorphoses, Book XV, tells of an ancient anchor found on the very summit of a mountain, and of marine shells lying dead far from the ocean.

Explorers have been puzzled by finding sea shells and other specimens of marine life high up in the Rocky Mountains, in the Appalachian, the Andes, the Himalayas, and other mountain ranges. The location of these marine specimens is readily accounted for by the successive Great Deluges of the earth; during each Great Deluge huge quantities of sea shells and marine specimens were churned up as debris, held in suspension by the rushing flood waters, and then widely scattered over the mountains, plains, and valleys comprising the land areas.

Two enigmas, which have long baffled scientists, resolve themselves automatically in the minds of those who accept the theory of the recurrent careenings of the globe. These two riddles have to do with the Land and Water Hemispheres and with the Rifts.
 

 

LAND AND WATER HEMISPHERES

Our globe may be divided into a Land Hemisphere, containing approximately 46.6 per cent land and the rest water; and a Water Hemisphere, having only approximately 11.6 per cent land.

 

This geographical fact confirms that the Sudan Basin area of Africa was at the North Pole during Epoch No. 1 B.P. It was there that the polar ice cap of that epoch grew to maturity and created the Sudan Basin.

When the eccentric throw of the rotating weight of the Sudan Basin Ice Cap rolled the earth around until the basin reached its present latitude, the earth careened about 80 and ended Epoch No. 1 B.P.

The city of London is located at the approximate center of the Land Hemisphere; it lies approximately halfway between the North Pole and Lake Chad, and nearly on the line of the ice Cap’s travel.

The existence of a Land Hemisphere is explained by the enormous weight and rotating speed and corresponding eccentric centrifugal force of the migrating Sudan Basin Ice Cap. The Ice Cap traveled with a varying rate of speed as it left the Pole of Spin and journeyed toward the tropics; its speed was that of the earth’s surface strata for each latitude plus the additional speed generated by the careening motion of the globe’s surface.

Neither the speed of careening nor the speed of the earth’s rotation affected the Sudan Basin Ice Cap when it was at the North Pole. Then it moved only at the slow speed of the wobbling motion of the earth and at the speed created by the distance the Axis of Figure was off center from the Axis of Spin.

 

The speed of careening soon became excessively great, but decreased to practically zero when the Ice Cap reached about 10 Northern latitude, while its speed of motion due to the rotation of the globe became about 40 per cent faster than the speed of sound, since it would then move at approximately the speed of the earth’s surface at the Equator.

The eccentric centrifugal force created by the motion of the Ice Cap at these great speeds caused the elevation of all the lands of which it was a part. It pulled them upward and outward from the center of the earth, against the force of gravity. At the same time most of the land areas of the opposite hemisphere became submerged in the oceans, and became a Water Hemisphere.

More than three quarters of the land surface of the globe is north of the Equator. This is so because the three most recent ice caps that have caused the globe to careen have been located at the North Pole. It is therefore to be no more than expected that the northern land areas are found to be elevated.

 

The present arrangement of the land masses is evidence of the upward and outward throws of the eccentric centrifugal force of the migrating ice caps of the past.

 

Rifts

THE UPWARD and outward pulls as well as stresses of the eccentric centrifugal force of the Sudan Basin Ice Cap created during the ice cap’s migration put certain tensions in the adjacent earth masses.

 

The great African Rift remains as mute telltale evidence of this. The rock formations thus torn apart tell of the transient forces created by the Ice Cap’s migration. It has long been known that tremendous force and tension were required to form the crevasses in the rocks, and that force is now clearly identified. We also identify this rifted area as a section of the globe that was moved from the North Pole to the tropics; it was at the same time moved about thirteen miles further from the center of the earth.

 

The radius of the earth being about 4,000 miles, the area had to be stretched out about 13/4000 squared, more than it had been, for surfaces of spheres are to each other as the squares of their diameters.

The Great African Rift lies to the east of and parallel to the direction of the Sudan Ice Cap’s line of travel. It extends both north of and south of the Sudan Basin, ranging from Syria to south central Africa, a distance of over 4,000 miles. Bailey Willis, in Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication No. 470 (1936), has collected many photographs of rift valleys. In many places the sides are vertical, or nearly so, and are so bare and sharply cut as to indicate the rift’s recent geological creation. Some of the rift valleys have normal escarpments.

J. W. Gregory delineates and describes sections of the Great African Rift Valley in his book The Rift Valley and Geology of East Africa. Both of these authorities refer to other rifts known in many parts of the world.

 

They describe the Rift Valley as being in some places, a single chasm and sometimes being as wide as the Red Sea; in other places it has been broken into a long, wide chain with numerous chasms. The Rift Valley branches eastward to the mouth of the Gulf of Aden and westward beyond Lake Tanganyika in the rift valley of the central Congo region.

 

The Red Sea is not in a valley; no important rivers flow into it. It appears to be a crack, approximately 1,250 miles long, in the upper rock surface of the earth, where the earth opened up, clue to transient tensions, and stayed open.

The Dead Sea, near the northern end of the Great Rift, is 1,300 feet deep and its surface is 1,293 feet below sea level the lowest land surface on the earth. The Dead Sea and the River Jordan lie in a narrow valley, so straight and deep that it has been described as a crevasse in the earth’s so called crust. Similarly, Lake Tanganyika, lying in what is one of the southern extensions of the Rift, is 4,190 feet deep and its bottom is 1,664 feet below sea level. The Great Rift is indeed no local fracture, its length being one sixth of the circumference of the earth.

There is much evidence to show that the rocks in the area have been pulled apart. In many places parallel faults, extending north south, are arranged like a grid, or like parallel fingers of long, thin rock slices on end, separated by bays of alluvium.

If we look for evidences of earth tensions on the side opposite the Rift, caused by the Sudan Basin Ice Cap reeling southward and causing the land surfaces to stretch, we notice both the main fjords at Oslo running north south and the English Channel. In the Channel area we find that a great deposit of chalk has apparently been split approximately down the middle, with one half in the cliffs of Normandy facing the other half in the cliffs of Dover.

In view of the above facts, indicating that rifts were created by the tensions resulting from the eccentric centrifugal forces of rotation of polar ice caps in transition, we can confidently look for other rifts caused by former polar ice caps, and we will find them as fjords, chasms, and steep, walled valleys all over the surface of the earth.

Polar Regions

EARLY explorers arrived in Antarctica with comparatively open minds but did expect to find evidence to support the then current belief that the ice mass was the waning remnant of a prehistoric ice age.

They discovered physical phenomena which they erroneously concluded were proofs of the ice mass having been larger in former times.

Near the coasts they observed glacially transported boulders perched 1,000 to 1,500 feet above the flowing glaciers, and high up on the sides of mountains they saw the scouring marks, striations made by moving glaciers. They assumed that the Ice Cap must have been at least 1,000 feet higher in former times, and their erroneous conclusion that the Ice Cap was waning became current popular belief.

It is possible that they observed the telltale markings of an earlier ice age for Antarctica; as The Encyclopaedia Britannica states,

"Raised beaches show an emergence of land in Quarternary times and there is evidence of a recent glacial period when the ice sheet on the Palmer Peninsula was 1,000 feet higher than it is now."

(Vol. 2, 1959, page 14) .

A more recent view holds that these phenomena more probably have been caused by the natural workings of isostacy, the inland ice pressures having caused the extrusion of coastal mountains.

The Ice Cap, fed by copious snowfall and almost continuous fall of hoarfrost, appears to be constantly growing in robust health, and not waning.

Glaciers, past or present, never could pile up any higher on the sea coasts than they do at present, because any increase in weight makes them flow away faster into the oceans, and the ice is constantly flowing off the land and into the sea. Therefore, glaciers could not have deposited the 1,500 foot high boulders on the coast nor have caused the scouring marks on the high coastal mountains.

Some of the coastal rocks of yesterday have apparently become the coastal mountains of today. They were spewed up to relieve the tremendous pressures created on the rock floor of the inland ice bowl. Greenland’s ring of coastal mountains and its depressed center appears to be a similar example of the workings of isostacy.

Such rock upthrusts receive confirmation from the carcass of a Weddell seal, found by Captain Scott high up in the twin Ferrar Glacier, near the Ross Sea Coast. For a seal to have climbed so high is, of course, absolutely impossible. For a seal to have been reposing on rocks which were flung up to a higher altitude can be explained in the same way as the finding of glacial boulders perched high in the mountains.

Solid rock flows under pressure, but it cannot move downward. Antarctica’s interior ice pressures are relieved at the coasts, the rock being burst up into the coastal mountains. Thus added to, these mountains serve to enlarge the area of the continent, and at the same time, they block off or dam the flow of ice. This increases the volume and weight of cold storage ice, which, in turn, acts to produce new coastal mountains. This is the vicious circle of Antarctica’s growth!

"Ice mountains" and "ice volcanoes" illustrate the vicious circle of the continent’s growth. An ice mountain discovered along the Queen Maud Land coast by the U.S. Navy’s 1946 47 expedition is described by Admiral Byrd as "luminous blue, towering more than two miles high and extending 100 miles along this coast." Others have described it as rising sharply from the ocean depth. It now blocks off the flow of the ice to the sea, increasing the weight of the Ice Cap.

"Luminous blue" signifies deep glacial ice. Placed in a glass of water, it gives off air bubbles as the ice melts, the effervescence being due to the air having been under pressure. Deep glacial ice, now high up in a mountain, can only be accounted for by the theory of underground rock movements and coastal upthrusts.

Ice volcanoes, or "ice bowls" which pockmark a large area of the Bellingshausen Sea coast are caused by sudden violent rock flows resulting in pillars, or guyots, that have been thrust up. They block off the flow of ice to the sea, and thus increase the Ice Cap’s weight.

The ice appears to have been thrust upward with such speed that the momentum caused the upper sections of the glacial ice to become detached from the parent ice on the floors of the bowls. Some of these upper layers of ice were extruded so violently that they broke into great blocks, the size of houses and ships, some of which landed on the lower ice shelf and some back in the craters.

The rocks under these bowls have been thrust up as the result of the same processes, described on page 101, that have formed the underground pillars of salt, the clay pipes of the diamond mines, and the ocean guyots as well as the ice mountains.

The contours of the tops of these rock extrusions are either flat or irregular, depending on whether the ground levels from which they were extruded were even or very rough. It is predicted that when some of the sheer wall like coastal mountains are examined more closely the rock surfaces will be found to look less aged less eroded and spalled by frost action than mountains rising above the ice sheet in the inland areas. This will confirm their more recent creation.

Where a long range of mountains now located inland from the sea coast lies parallel to it, the presumption is that the inland range at one time was actually at the coast. The mountain range of Queen Maud Land, 100 miles or more inland, is an example.

Greenland’s topography indicates that the mountains along its sea coasts have been thrust up by the same process. Its central plateau of ice is about 10,000 feet above sea level and is contained by these mountains, now forming most of its sea coasts and shore lines. In the central areas the rock floor has been depressed below sea level by the weight of the ice.

Antarctica’s highest elevation is reported to be approximately 14,000 feet above sea level. Recent depth recording echo soundings have disclosed that the rock floor, in some central locations, is a mile below sea level. Thus, the maximum ice column may be estimated to be approximately 19,000 feet in height.

The resulting pressure on the rock floor is over 7,500 pounds per square inch over 1,000,000 pounds (500 tons) per square foot at those particular locations, assuming that the ice weighs uniformly 57.5 pounds per cubic foot. To repeat, this bottom pressure appears to find relief at the sea coasts by pushing up the coastal mountains.

It has been noticed that striated glacial markings are found on the rocks forming one side of a glacier filled valley, and that no markings appear on the softer rocks forming the opposite wall of the same valley. The markings on one side could never have been made by the valley glaciers; if the glaciers had reached higher previously, both sides of that valley would have striated walls. It is more reasonable, then, to assume that the rocks have been forced upward than that the glaciers have sunk down.

Apparently the rocks on both sides of the valley have been thrust upward by underground pressure, caused by the central ice weight, the striated one by tilting and the softer, unstriated rocks by direct levitation. It is also postulated that enormous striated rock masses have been carried seaward because of the inland ice pressure.

Starving glaciers have been reported by explorers who have observed cirques and bare mountain walls. But available photographs show that bare walls always occur on the north side, except where flowing glaciers are carrying the ice seaward by the force of gravity. The glacial ice does not appear to be starving on the south side of valleys, where inland ice pressures apparently fill all available space with ice.

Oases, which are limited areas of bare rock and sand, free from snow and ice, are found in the midst of ice covered areas. Some explorers and writers maintain that these oases indicate that the entire Ice Cap is waning. The phenomena are explained more rationally, however, by the theory of earth electric currents, which heat the land and cause snow and ice to melt. They are the cause of the fumarole of Mount Erebus. (See "Volcanoes and Hot Springs," Part III, page 236. )

Iceland, as an analogy, has both glaciers and hot springs. Many buildings in the city of Reykjavik are heated in winter by the hot water piped from the hot springs. Ice free areas and frozen lakes are attributed to the same cause that creates the hot springs. It is obvious that the cold storage facilities of the great Antarctic continent are reduced by only a tiny fraction by the relatively small areas of localized heat.
 

The Creation of Mountains

THE forces of nature react on each other in various ways during the active periods of global careenings. Because of the curvature of the globe the centrifugal forces of the rotating ice caps which initiate the careens soon reach a maximum and then diminish.

When the ice caps have migrated 45 degrees of latitude their centrifugal force responds to the combined motions of careening and rotation. Between the sun latitudes of 45 and 0 degrees they change from being upsetting to being stabilizing forces.

Equatorial bulges then start to form, and the centrifugal forces of the ice caps and of the new bulges of the earth are soon working in unison to bring the reeling motions of the globe to a rapid slow down and stop.

In the meantime, kinetic energy which has developed in the continental land masses because of their weights and velocities, collides with the combined energy of the newly generated bulges of the earth and of the ice caps.

The result of these collisions of forces is that the energy of the moving continents is absorbed by the crushing, elevating, and wrinkling of large land areas whose rock strata are crumpled and bent in ridges at right angles to the forces being dissipated.

A striking illustration of the formation of mountain ranges, by the dissipation of the mechanical energy of the rolling earth masses when brought to a halt by a superior force of global stabilization, is the great chain of mountains lying approximately at right angles to the directions of motion of the last three rollarounds of the globe. They extend along a nearly perfect meridian circle skirting the basin of the Pacific Ocean, traversing the west coasts of South America and North America and parts of Asia.

The directions in which the three last North Pole ice caps moved, while rolling the globe sideways to its normal direction of rotation, were,

(1) On a line from the Hudson Bay Basin of Canada to the Caspian Sea Depression of Russia (which previously had been at the North Pole),

(2) From Hudson Bay Basin (which had been at the North Pole) to the Sudan Basin of Africa,

(3) From Sudan Basin to present North Pole.

It is customary to refer to Africa as "a plateau of continental size, because its margins are abrupt..." (Elements of Geography, by Vernon C. Finch and others).

The elevation of the continent of Africa is due to the centrifugal force of the most recent roll around of the globe, which was spearheaded by Africa and its ice cap; as mentioned before, the depression of the great Sudan Basin remains as a telltale evidence of this ice cap.

The wrinkles and folds in the rocks of the earth’s upper layers are not uniformly distributed. They are not, for instance, like the surfaces of desiccated plums (prunes) and dried apples, whose wrinkled surfaces do not have fault foldings, as do some of our mountains. Such evidence provided by the earth itself, helps to refute the older theory that the wrinkling of rocks into mountains indicates that the earth is shrinking in volume. We now know that it is growing in volume.

Cross sections of the Appalachian mountains and the Alps show shallow folds of rock strata, the result of great compression forces acting tangentially at that point of the earth. Below these folded strata are other earth layers making up entirely different formations; that they are unaffected by the local surface forces is shown by countless illustrations in geological literature. This, in turn, indicates that the folds have been caused by surface forces which did not affect the lower earth strata.

The warping and the folds of localized earth layers become corollary evidence supporting the theory of recurrent careenings of the earth and of the tangentially imposed compression forces. The energy involved in careening earth masses, when brought to a halt, is sufficient to create the observed folds and warpings and is also great enough to change the horizontal position of many earth strata to a vertical one, and also to cause the synclines and the anticlines in the earth’s rock structures.

All changes in tile surface of the earth are due to forces which even in our day are either active or latent, and these forces will continue to produce similar changes for the duration of the earth’s existence.

Mountains of the Rock of Gibraltar type indicate clearly that a vertical geological break or fault bas occurred in such rock strata, and that it was caused by an irresistible force; it brought about an upheaval or elevation of the tiered underground earth strata on one side of the fault, exposing the laminated strata in one sheer face or precipice. The other sides of such mountains will usually slope clown gradually, the earth’s surface being practically as it was before the upheaval, but it is now slanted to the horizontal.

The precipitous face of this type of mountain weathers and erodes increasingly toward its summit, and the area around its base is filled with talus, breccia, and debris deposited on what was formerly the surface of the earth on the opposite side of the geological fault.

Mountains of this kind are produced not only when the earth careens and then rapidly ceases its reeling motion, but also during ice ages such as the ones now prevailing in Antarctica and Greenland. The normal workings of isostacy equalize the ice and rock pressures by underground earth movements, including rock fracture and rock flow.

The Ice Cap in Antarctica, for example, exerts a pressure, at sea level, of about 500 tons per square foot on the underground rock materials. This pressure can be relieved only by lateral rock motion in the center and by lateral and upward motions of the rocks at the edges of the continent.

Some parts of the mountains forced upward by the lateral underground flow of rock materials as occurs in the coastal mountainous areas of Greenland and Antarctica will be found to lack well marked stratification, for the stratifications become distorted in those parts of the rock materials which have been forced to flow.

Subterranean pressures have raised up mountains of various shapes. Some, like Gibraltar, appear with slanting elevations placed almost on end; some look like humped mounds; others resemble a long finger of uplifted stratified rock layers, their centers welling up like heads of well developed cabbage which have been tremendously elongated, and which have divided numerous layers of the upper rock strata.

Sheep Mountain on Wyoming’s Big Horn River is an example of the last mentioned type. In the course of time the center section, where broken, has eroded away to form a hogback mountain. The harder or more durable rocks of the cracked outer strata have eroded and become ridges paralleling the contour of the main formation.

The unusual appearance of Steamboat Rock at Dinosaur National Monument, Utah, its shape and flat stratifications, resembles a multistoried New York City skyscraper with setbacks on one face and a sheer flat precipice face on the other. It appears to have been extruded by subterranean pressures seeking relief.

The birth of a different class of small mountains, created by volcanic heat, is described in Part III, in the chapter entitled "Theory of Volcanoes."

The polar ice caps, which have existed in all geological epochs, are a primary instigating cause of the creation of mountains. They produce mountains by the pressures they exert while growing, and by causing the globe to careen when they reach their maturity.

The successive layers of earth strata are clearly seen in many mountains. This indicates that the strata now forced up to the surface were once below the surface. The flat tops of some mountains may have been the original level land surface, or the flat top may be all that was left when the topmost layer or layers of the mountain were carried away by a flood during one of the careenings of the globe, or were floated away on the ice during an ice age.

The Ice Cap in Antarctica is suspected of separating mountain tops from their bases by creating cleavages along the strata planes of the mountain layers. A limestone layer will slowly dissolve in fresh water, which is slightly acid. Such a layer might become so slippery that the side pressures of the ice could cause the whole top section of the mountain to slide sideways and be carried by the ice to the sea coast like any other oversize boulder.

Submerged flat topped, conical mountains have been found in the ocean. They are called "drowned ocean islands," or "guyots." More than 500 have been charted in tire Pacific Ocean during the past decade, and a few in the Atlantic.

The theory that these mountains were extruded and forced upward either during ice ages or were decapitated by ice during an ice age fits the facts more snugly than any theory yet advanced to account for them. Their flat tops were probably the flat ground level where the extrusion occurred. The "ice bowls," described in the section on Antarctica (page 99) are postulated to have resulted from just such extrusions.

Other well known types of earth formations fit into the theory like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle when they are explained as having been caused by the tremendous pressures of overlying ice caps; and no other adequate explanation has previously been advanced to explain the phenomena.

The clay columns or "pipes" in which diamonds are found in Africa and Brazil, identified by me as beds which underlay ice caps are composed of silt in nonsolidified but articulate form. The great pressures created when ice caps develop above clay beds cause the particles to rearrange their formation and to be squeezed into and penetrate the upper adjacent materials of the earth, and therefore the clays are forced into the shapes of long pipes.

The particles composing some African pipes have been termed breccia because they consist of many small rock particles of widely varying chemical composition. The fact that the pipes are like cornucopias, with the large end up, is an indication of a sudden upthrust of material under a great pressure which caused the upper part to expand more than the lower part, the reason for this being that the resistance of the lateral rock pressures were less great toward the surface than deep down. The upper surfaces of rock strata in the South African diamond area are marked by sharply defined straight furrows characteristic of the ice ages.

Just why diamonds are found in these clay pipes is quite another subject; but in view of the pressures created by a tremendously heavy overlying ice mass, it seems reasonable to assume that the carbon contents of animal or vegetable item strapped snugly in the clays changed gradually into the diamond form of carbon crystallization.

Ocean waters, trapped in landlocked basins following any one of the many former roll arounds of the earth, evaporated and left behind vast beds of salt with flat surfaces and bottoms having lake like contours. The surfaces became overlaid by some of the many minerals left behind when the sea waters evaporated. These, in turn, were covered by various earth materials during the following epochs between and during the recurrent careens of the globe.

In drilling for oil, sulphur, and other materials, it has been found that pressures heretofore unidentified have forced some of the salt upward into straight, smooth, sheer underground pillars. There are usually several layers of the normal rock strata which cap these salt plugs and appear to have spearheaded the advance of the softer pillars as they emerged from the main salt beds, under pressure of the overlying ice.

This release of pressure is somewhat analogous to the popping of the cork from a bottle of champagne. "Ice bowls" and "ice mountains" are similar extrusions forced by the ice cap pressures.

Salt pillars have been found only whenever salt beds have been compressed into dome shapes, and both domes and pillars are natural phenomena explained by ice cap pressures.

Domes as well as pillars record the fact that an ice cap once existed in that locality.
 

Ocean Depths and Mountain Heights

CHANGES in the elevations and depressions on the earth’s surface, caused by the locations of the earth’s bulge and axis being shifted following each careen of the globe, are limited to 13 miles vertically.

The diameter of the earth at the bulge of the Equator is about 26 miles greater than the length of the polar axis, and therefore the maximum change of land elevations and ocean depressions is limited to half of the change in diameter at any given point on the surface of the earth. The total changes on both sides of the globe may add up to about 26 miles, but the changes on any one side will not exceed 13 miles at the points of maximum change.

These changes in elevations and depressions have occurred repeatedly each time that the Axis of Figure has been shifted to a new random location, and today the surface of the earth consists of innumerable elevations and depressions.

The highest mountain peaks are nearly 6 miles above sea level, and the greatest ocean depth almost 7 miles below sea level. They add up to just under 13 miles just within the permissible theoretical limit.

The Sudan Basin land area, which was at the North Pole during Epoch No. 1 B.P., was moved approximately 13 miles further away from the center of the earth when the globe last careened, while the land areas now at the North and South Poles which were at that time near the edge of the tropical zone were moved closer to the center of the earth by about 13 miles.

These were cataclysmic disturbances in the surface layers of the earth; yet, when the various forces involved readjusted the earth’s surface in order to eliminate the conflicting pressures of the centrifugal force of rotation, the kinetic energy of motion, and the force of gravity, the total vertical distance between the greatest depressions in the sea bottoms and the highest elevations of mountains remained within the total possible range of 13 miles.

This balancing of existing pressures, effected by rapid movements of rocks and other earth materials, resulted in the first post flood isostasy or equilibrium of the earth’s stratifications. Since then, isostasy has been maintained by the earthquakes which occur every day.

The theory of the recurrent careenings of the globe caused by the eccentric centrifugal forces of great rotating ice caps accounts for the limitations found to exist for ocean depths and land elevations. The tremendous forces which have torn earth layers apart and caused mountains to be formed in chains, or ranges, can now be identified. The reason that the floor of the ocean resembles the contours of the land is no longer a mystery.