The Gravitics Situation
Interavia
Gravity Rand Ltd. 66 Sloane Street London S.W. 1
Theme of the science for 1956-1970:
SERENDIPITY
Einstein's view:-
"It may not be an unattainable hope that some day a
clearer knowledge of the processes of gravitation may be reached; and
the extreme generality and detachment of the relativity theory may be
illuminated by the particular study of a precise mechanism".
CONTENTS
I - Engineering note on present frontiers of knowledge .
. . . . . . .3
II - Management note on the gravitics situation . . . .
. . . . .. .10
III - Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .. . . .17
IV - References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .20
V - Appendix.
Appendix I. Summary of Townsend Brown's original
specification for an apparatus for producing force or motion . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 22
Appendix II. Mozer's quantum mechanical approach to the
existence of negative mass and its utilization in the construction of
gravitationally neutralized bodies . . . . . . 30
Appendix III. Gravity effects (Beam's) . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 37
Appendix IV. A link between Gravitation and nuclear
energy (Deser and,Arnowitt).. 39
Appendix V. Gravity/Heat Interaction Wickenden) . . . .
. . . . . .. 41
Appendix VI. Weight-mass anomaly (Perl). . . . . . . . .
. . . . .. .42
Thanks to the Gravity Research Foundation for Appendix
II - VI
I
Engineering note on present frontiers of knowledge
Gravitics is likely to follow a number of separate lines
of development: the best known short term proposition is Townsend
Brown's electrostatic propulsion by gravitators (details of which are
to be found in the Appendix I). An extreme extrapolation of Brown's
later rigs appears to suggest a Mach 3 interceptor type aircraft.
Brown called this basically force and
motion, but it does not appear to be the road to a gravitational
shield or reflector. His is the brute force approach of concentrating
high electrostatic charges along the leading edge of the periphery of
a disk which yields propulsive effect. Brown originally maintained
that his gravitators operate independently of all frames of reference
and it is motion in the absolute sense - relative to the universe as a
whole. There is however no evidence to support this. In the absence of
any such evidence, it is perhaps more convenient to think of Brown's
disks as
electrostatic propulsion which has its own niche in aviation.
Electrostatic disks can provide lift without speed over a flat
surface. This could be an important advance over all forms of airfoil
which require induced flow; and lift without air flow is a development
that deserves to be followed up in its own right, and one that for
military purposes is already envisaged by the users as applicable to
all three services. This point has been
appreciated in the United States and a program in hand may now ensure
that development of large sized disks will be continued. This is
backed by the U.S. Government but it is something that will be pursued
on a small scale. This acceptance follows Brown's original suggestion
embodied in Project Winterhaven. Winterhaven recommended that a major
effort be concentrated on electrogravitics based on the principle of
his disks. The U.S. Government evaluated the disks wrongly, and
misinterpreted the nature of the energy. This incorrect report was
filed as an official assessment, and it took some three years to
correct the
earlier misconception. That brings developments up to the fairly
recent past. and by that time it was realized that no effort on the
lines of Winterhaven was practical, and that more modest aims should
be substituted. These were re-written around a new report which is
apparently based on newer thoughts and with some later patents not yet
published which form the basis of current U.S. policy. It is a matter
of some controversy whether this research could be accelerated by more
money but the impression in Gravity Rand is that the base of industry
is perhaps more than adequately
wide. Already companies are specializing in evolution of particular
components of an electrogravitics disk. This implies that the science
is in the same state as the ICBM - namely that no new breakthroughs
are needed, only intensive development engineering. This may be an
optimistic reading of the situation: it is true that materials are now
available for the condensers giving higher k figures than were
postulated in Winterhaven as
necessary, and all the ingredients necessary for the disks appear to
be available. But industry is still some way from having an adequate
power sources and possessing any practical experience of running such
equipment.
The long term development of gravity shields, absorbers,
and 'magic metals' appears at the moment however to be a basically
different problem, and work on this is not being sponsored* so far as
is known. The absorber or shield could be intrinsically a weapon of a
great power, the limits of which are
difficult to foresee. The power of the device to undermine the
electrostatic forces holding the atom together is a destructive
by-product of military significance. In unpublished work Gravity Rand
has indicated the possible effect of such a device for demolition. The
likelihood of such work being sponsored in small countries outside the
U.S. is slight, since there is general lack of money and resources and
in all such countries quick returns are essential.
Many people hold that little or no progress can be made
until the link in the Einstein unified field theory has been found.
This is surely a somewhat defeatist view, because although no all
embracing explanation of the relationship between the extraordinary
variety of high energy particles continually being uncovered is yet
available much can be done to pin down the general nature of
anti-gravity devices.
There are several promising approaches one of them is
the search for negative mass, a second is to find a relationship
between gravity and heat, and a third is to find the link between
gravitation and the coupled particles. Taking the first of these:
negative mass, the initial task is to prove the existence of negative
mass, and Appendix II outlines how it might
be done. This is Mozer's approach which is based on the Schroedinger
time independent equation with the center of mass motion removed. As
the paper shows, this requires some 100 bev - which is beyond the
power of existing particle accelerators: however the present Russian
and American nuclear programs envisage 50 bev bevatrons within a few
years and at the present
rate of progress in the nuclear sciences it seems possible that the
existence of negamass will be proved by this method of a Bragg
analysis of the crystal structure - or disproved.
If negamass is established, the precise part played by
the subnuclear particles could be quickly determined. Working theories
have been built up to explain how negative masses would be repelled by
positive masses and pairs would accelerate gaining kinetic energy
until they reach the speed of light and then assume the role of the
high energy particles. It has been suggested by Ferrell that this
might explain the role of neutrino, but this seems unlikely without
some explanation of the spin ascribed to the neutrino. Yet the absence
of rest mass or charge of the neutrino makes it especially intriguing.
Certainly, further study of the neutrino would be relevant to
gravitational problems. If, therefore, the aircraft industry regards
anti-gravity as part of its responsibilities it cannot escape the
necessity of monitoring high energy physics or the neutrino. There are
two aircraft companies definitely doing this; but little or no
evidence that most of the others know even what a neutrino is.
The relationship between electrical charges and
gravitational forces however will depend on the right deductions being
drawn from excessively small anomalies.* First clues to such small and
hitherto unnoticed effects will come by study of the unified field
theory. such effects may be observed in work on the gravithermals, and
interacting effect of heat and gravity. Here, at least, there is
firmer evidence materials are capable of
temperature changes depending on gravity. This, as Beams says, (see
Appendix III) is due to results from the alignment of the atoms.
Gravity tensions applied across the ends of a tube filled with
electrolyte can produce heat or be used to furnish power. The logical
extension of this is an absorber of gravity in the form of a flat
plate and the gravitative flux acting on it (its atomic and molecular
structure, its weight density and form are not, at this stage, clear)
would lead to an increase in heat of
the mass of its surface and subsurface particles.
The third approach is to aim at discovering a connection
between nuclear particles and the gravitational field. This also
returns to the need for interpreting macroscopic relativistic
phenomena at one extreme in terms of microscopic quantum mechanical
phenomena at the other. Beaumont in suggesting a solution recalls how
early theory established rough and ready
assumptions of the characteristics of electron spin before the whole
science of the atomic orbital was worked out. These were based on
observation and they were used with some effect at a time when data
was needed. Similar assumptions of complex spin might be used to link
the microscopic to the macroscopic. At any rate, there are some loose
ends in complex spin to be tied up, and these could logically he
sponsored with some expectation of results by companies wondering how
to make a contribution.
* See Appendix VI
If a real spin or rotation is applied to a planar geoid
the gravitational equipotentials can be made less convex, plane or
concave. These have the effect of adjusting the intensity of the
gravitational field at will which is a requirement for the gravity
absorber. Beaumont seemed doubtful whether external power would have
to be applied to achieve this. but it seems reasonable to suppose that
power could be fed into the system to achieve a beneficial adjustment
to the gravitational field, and conventional engineering methods could
ensure that the weight of power input services would be more than
offset by weightlessness from the spin inducer. The engineering
details of this are naturally still in the realms of conjecture; but,
at least, it is something that could be worked out with
laboratory rigs; and, again, the starting point is to make more
accurate observations of small effects. The technique would be to
accept any anomalies in nature and from them to establish what would
be needed to induce a spin artificially.
It has been argued that the scientific community faces a
seemingly impossible task in attempting to alter gravity when the
force is set up by a body as large as this planet and that to change
it might demand a comparable force of similar planetary dimensions. It
was scarcely surprising therefore that experience had shown that while
it has been possible to observe the effects of gravity it resisted any
form of control or manipulation. But the time is fast approaching when
for the first time it will be within the capability of engineers with
bevatrons to work directly with particles that it, is increasingly
accepted, contribute to the source of gravitation; and whilst that in
itself may not lead to an absorber of gravity, it will at least throw
some light on the sources of the power.
Another task is solution* of outstanding equations to
convert gravitational phenomena to nuclear energy. The problem, still
not yet solved may support the Bondi-Hoyle theory that expansion of
the universe represents energy continually annihilated instead of
being carried to the boundaries of the
universe. This energy loss manifests itself in the behaviour of the
hyperon and K-particles which would, or might, form the link between
the microcosm and macrocosm. Indeed Deser and Arnowitt propose that
the new particles are a direct link between gravitationally produced
energy and nuclear energy. If this were so it would be the place to
begin in the search for practical
methods of gravity manipulation. It would be realistic to assume that
the K-particles are such a link. Then a possible approach might be to
disregard objections which cannot be explained at this juncture until
further unified field links are established. As in the case of the
spin and orbital theories, which were naive in the beginning, the
technique might have to accept the apparent forces and make theory fit
observation until more is known.
Some people feel that the chances of finding such a
unified field theory to link gravity and electrodynamics are high; yet
think that the finding of a gravity shield is slight because of the
size of the energy source, and because the chances of seeing unnoticed
effects seem slender. Others feel the opposite and believe that a link
between nuclear energy and
gravitational energy may precede the link between the Einstein general
relativistic and Quantum Theory disciplines. Some hope that both
discoveries may come together; while a few believe that a partial
explanation of both may come about the same time,, which will afford
sufficient knowledge of gravitational fields to perfect an interim
type of absorber using field links that are available.
* See Appendix IV
This latter seems the more likely since it is already
beginning to happen. There is not likely to be any sudden full
explanation of the microcosm and macrocosm; but one strand after
another joining them will be fashioned, as progress is made towards
quantizing the Einstein theory.
II
Management note on the Gravitics Situation
The present anti-gravity situation as one of watching
and waiting by the large aircraft prime contractors for lofting
inventions or technological breakthroughs. Clarence Birdseye in one of
his last utterances thought that an insulator might be discovered by
accident by someone working on a quite
different problem; and in 500 years gravity insulators would be
commonplace. One might go further than Birdseye and say that
principles of the insulator would, by then, be fundamental to human
affairs; it would be as basic to the society as the difference today
between the weight of one metal and another. But at the same time it
would be wrong to infer from Birdseye's remark that a sudden isolated
discovery will be the key to the
science. The hardware will come at a time when the industry is ready
and waiting for it. It will arrive after a long period of getting
accustomed to thinking in terms of weightlessness, and naturally it
will appear after the feasibility of achieving it in one form or
another has been established in theory.*
The aim of companies at this stage must therefore surely
be to monitor the areas of progress in the world of high energy
physics which seem likely to lead to establishment of the foundations
of anti-gravity. This means keeping a watchful eye on
electrogravitics, magnetogravitics gravitics isotopes; and
electrostatics in various forms for propulsion or levitation.
This is not at the present stage a very expensive business, and
* But this does not mean that harnessed forces will be
necessarily fully understood at the outset.
Investment in laboratory man-hours is necessary only
when a certain line of reasoning which may look promising comes to a
dead-end for lack of experimental data, or only when it might be worth
running some laboratory tests to bridge a chasm between one part of a
theory and another or in connecting two or more theories together. If
this is right, anti-gravity is in a state similar to nuclear
propulsion after the NEPA findings, yet
before the ANP project got under way. It will be remembered that was
the period when the Atomic Energy Commission sponsored odd things here
and there that needed doing. But it would be misleading to imply that
hardware progress on electrostatic disks is presently so far along as
nuclear propulsion was in that state represented by ANP. True the NEPA
men came to the conclusion that a nuclear-propelled aircraft of a kind
could be built, but it would be only a curiosity. Even at the time of
the Lexington and
Whitman reports it was still some way from fruition: the aircraft
would have been more than a curiosity but not competitive enough to be
seriously considered.
It is not in doubt that work on anti-gravity is in the
realm of the longer term future. One of the tests of virility of an
industry is the extent to which it is so self confident of its
position that it can afford to sponsor R&D which cannot promise a
quick return. A closing of minds to anything except lines of
development that will provide a quick return is a sign of either a
strait-laced economy or of a pure lack of prescience, (or both).
Another consideration that will play its part in
managerial decision is that major turning points in anti-gravity work
are likely to prove far removed from the tools of the aircraft
engineer. A key instrument for example that may determine the
existence of negamass and establish posimass-negamass interaction is
the super bevatron. It needs some 100 bev gammas on hydrogen to
perform a Bragg analysis of the elementary particle structure by
selective reflection to prove the existence of negamass. This value is
double as much the new Russian bevatron under construction and it is
15 times as powerful as the highest particle accelerations in the
Berkeley bevatron so far attained. Many people think that nothing much
can
be done until negamass has been observed. If industry were to adopt
this approach it would have a long wait and a quick answer at the end.
But the negamass-posimass theory can be further developed; and, in
anticipation of its existence, means of using it in a gravitationally
neutralized body could be worked out. This, moreover, is certainly not
the only possible approach: a breakthrough may well come in the
interaction between
gravitative action and heat theory at the moment suggests that if
gravity could produce heat the effect is limited at the moment to a
narrow range.* But the significant thing would be establishment of a
principle.
History may repeat itself thirty years ago, and even as
recently as the German attempts to produce nuclear energy in the war,
nobody would have guessed that power would be unlocked by an accident
at the high end of the atomic table. All prophecies of atomic energy
were concerned with how quickly means of fusion could be applied at
the low end. In anti-gravity work, and this * See Appendix V goes back
to Birdseye, it may be an unrelated accident that will be the means of
getting into the gravitational age. It is a prime responsibility of
management to be aware of possible ways of using theory to accelerate
such a process. In other words serendipity.
It is a common thought in industry to look upon the
nuclear experience as a precedent for gravity, and to argue that
gravitics will similarly depend on the use of giant tools, beyond the
capabilities of the air industry and that companies will edge into the
gravitational age on the coat-tails of the Government as industry has
done, or is doing, in nuclear physics. But this over looks the point
that the two sciences are likely to be different
in their investment. Itwill not need a place like Hanford or Savannah
River to produce a gravity shield or insulator once the knowhow has
been established. As a piece of conceptual engineering the project is
probably likely to be much more like a repetition of the turbine
engine. It will be simple in its essence, but the detailed componentry
will become progressively more complex to interpret in the form of a
stable flying
platform and even more intricate when it comes to applying the
underlying principles to a flexibility of operating altitude ranging
from low present flight speeds at one extreme to flight in a vacuum at
the other. This latter will be the extreme test of its powers. Again
the principle itself will function equally in a vacuum - Townsend
Brown's saucers could move in a vacuum readily enough - but the
supporting parts must also work in a vacuum. In practice, they tend to
give trouble, just as gas turbine bits
and pieces start giving trouble in proportion to the altitude gained
in flight.
But one has to see this rise in complexity with
performance and with altitude attainment in perspective: eventually
the most advanced capability may be attained with the most extremely
simple configurations. As is usual however in physics developments the
shortest line of progress is a geodesic, which may in turn lead the
propulsion trade into many roundabout
paths as being the shortest distance between aims and achievement.
But aviation business is understandably interested in
knowing precisely how to recognize early discoveries of significance
and this Gravity Rand report is intended to try and outline some of
the more promising lines. One suggestion frequently made is that
propulsion and levitation may be only
the last - though most important - of a series of others, some of
which will have varying degrees of gravitic element in their
constitution. It may be that the first practical application will be
in the greater freedom of communications offered by the change in wave
technique that it implies. A second application is to use the wave
technique for anti-submarine detection, either airborne or seaborne.
This would combine the width of horizon in search radar with the
underwater precision of Magnetic Airborne
Detection, and indeed it may have the range of scatter transmissions.
Chance discoveries in the development of this equipment may lead to
the formulation of new laws which would define the relationship of
gravity in terms of usable propulsion symbols. Exactly how this would
happen nobody yet knows and what industry and government can do at
this stage is to explore all the possible applications simultaneously,
putting pressure where results seem to warrant it.
In a paper of this kind it is not easy to discuss the
details of the wave technique in communications, and the following are
some of theories, briefly stated which require no mathematical
training to understand, which it would be worth management keeping an
eye on. In particular, watch should
be made of quantitative tests on lofting, and beneficiation of
material. Even quite small beneficiation ratios are likely to be
significant. There are some lofting claims being made of 20% and more,
and the validity of these will have to be weighed carefully. Needless
to say much higher ratios than this will have to be attained. New
high-k techniques and extreme-k materials are significant. High speeds
in electrostatic propulsion of small
discs will be worth keeping track of (by high speed one means hundreds
of m.p.h.) and some of these results are beginning to filter through
for general evaluation. Weight mass anomalies, new oil-cooled cables,
interesting megavolt gimmicks, novel forms of electrostatic
augmentation with, hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon fuels are
indicative, new patents under the broadest headings of force and
motion may have value, new electrostatic generator inventions could
tip the scales and unusual ways of turning condensers inside-out, new
angular propulsion ideas for barycentric control; and generally
certain types of saucer configuration are valuable pointers to ways
minds are working.
Then there is the personnel reaction to such
developments. Managements are in the hands of their technical men, and
they should beware of technical teams who are dogmatic at this state.
To assert electrogravitics is nonsense; is as unreal as to say it is
practically extant. Management should be careful of men in their
employ with a closed mind - or even
partially closed mind - on the subject.
This is a dangerous age: when not only is anything
possible, but it is possible quickly. A wise Frenchman once said you
have only to live long enough to see everything 'and the reverse of
everything;' and that is true in dealing with very advanced high
energy physics of this kind.
Scientists are not politicians: they can reverse
themselves once with acclaim - twice even with impunity. They may have
to do so in the long road to attainment of this virtually perfect air
vehicle. It is so easy to get bogged down with problems of the
present; and whilst policy has to be made
essentially with the present in mind - and in aviation a conservative
policy always pays - it is management's task and duty to itself to
look as far ahead as the best of its technicians in assessing the
posture of the industry.
GLOSSARY
Gravithermals: alloys which may be heated or cooled by
gravity waves. (Lover's definition)
Thermisters: materials capable of being influenced by
gravity.
Electrads: materials capable of being influenced by
gravity.
Gravitator: a plurality of cell units connected in
series: negative and positive electrodes with an interposed insulating
member (Townsend Brown's definition).
Lofting: the action of levitation where gravity's force
is more than overcome by electrostatic or other propulsion.
Beneficiation: the treatment of an alloy or substance to
leave it with an improved mass-weight ratio.
Counterbary: this, apparently, is another name for
lofting.
Barycentric control: the environment for regulation of
lofting processes in a vehicle.
Modulation: the contribution to lofting conferred on a
vehicle by, treatment of the substance of its construction as distinct
from that added to it by outside forces. Lofting is a synthesis of
intrinsic and extrinsic agencies.
Absorber; insulator: these terms - there is no formal
distinction between them as yet - are based on an analogy with
electromagnetism. This is a questionable assumption since the
similarity between electromagnetic and gravitational fields is valid
only in some respects such as both having electric and magnetic
elements. But the difference in coupling strengths,
noted by many experimenters, is fundamental to the science. Gravity
moreover may turn out to be the only non-quantized field in nature,
which would make it, basically, unique. The borrowing
of terms from the field of electromagnetism is therefore only a
temporary convenience. Lack of Cartesian representation makes this a
baffling science for many people.
Negamass: proposed mass that inherently has a negative
charge.
Posimass: mass the observed quantity - positively
charged.
Shield: a device which not only opposes gravity (such as
an absorber) but also furnishes an essential path along which or
through which, gravity can act. Thus whereas absorbers reflectors and
insulators can provide a gravitationally neutralized body, a shield
would enable a vehicle or sphere to 'fall away' in proportion to the
quantity of shielding material.
Screening: gravity screening was implied by Lanczos. It
is the result of any combination of electric or magnetic fields in
which one or both elements are not subject to varying permeability in
matter.
Reflector: a device consisting of material capable of
generating buoyant forces which balance the force of attraction. The
denser the material, the greater the buoyancy force. When the density
of the material equals the density of the medium the result will be
gravitationally neutralized. A greater density of material assumes a
lofting role.
Electrogravitics: the application of modulating
influences in an electrostatic propulsion system
Magnetogravitics: the influence of electromagnetic and
meson fields in a reflector.
Bosun fields: these are defined as gravitational
electromagnetic, ¼ and r meson fields (Metric tensor).
Fermion fields: these are electrons neutrinos muons
nucleons and V-particles (Spinors).
Gravitator cellular body: two or more gravitator cells
connected in series within a body (Townsend Brown's definition)
REFERENCES
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Phil. Mag., 39 ( 1920) p. 288.
Schneiderov, Science, (May 7, 1943), 97 sup. p. 10.
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Eddington, Report on the Relativity Theory of
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W.D. Fowler et al, Phys, Rev. 93, 861, (1954).
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R.L. Arnowitt & S. Deser unpublished, Univ. of
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C. H. Bondi, Cosmology, Cambridge University Press,
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Gravity F.L. Carter Essay on Gravity 1953.
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Luttinger Essay on Gravity 1951.
Appendix I (of the Gravitics Situation)
SUMMARY OF TOWNSEND BROWN'S ORIGINAL
PATENT SPECIFICATION
A Method of and an Apparatus or Machine for Producing
Force or motion.
This invention relates to a method of controlling
gravitation and for deriving power therefrom, and to a method of
producing linear force or motion. The method is fundamentally
electrical.
The invention also relates to machines or apparatus
requiring electrical energy - that control or influence the
gravitational field or the energy of gravitation; also to machines or
apparatus requiring electrical energy that exhibit a linear force or
motion which is believed to be independent of all
frames of reference save that which is at rest relative to the
universe taken as a whole, and said linear force or motion is
furthermore believed to have no equal and opposite reaction that can
be observed by any method commonly known and accepted by the physical
science to date.
Such a machine has two major parts A and B. These parts
may be composed of any material capable of being charged electrically.
Mass A and mass B may be termed electrodes A and B respectively.
Electrode A is charged negatively with respect to electrode B, or what
is substantially the same, electrode B is charged positively with
respect to electrode A, or what is
usually the case, electrode A has an excess of electrons while
electrode B has an excess of protons.
While charged in this manner the total force of A toward
B is the sum of force g (due to the normal gravitational field), and
force e (due to the imposed electrical field) and force x (due to the
resultant of the unbalanced gravitational forces caused by the
electro-negative charge or by the presence of an excess of electrons
of electrode A and by the electro-positive charge or by the presence
of an excess of protons on electrode B).
By the cancellation of similar and opposing forces and
by the addition of similar and allied forces the two electrodes taken
collectively possess a force 2x in the direction of B. This force 2x,
shared by both electrodes, exists as a tendency of these electrodes to
move or accelerate in the direction of the force, that is, A toward B
and B away from A. Moreover any machine or apparatus possessing
electrodes A and B will exhibit such a lateral acceleration or motion
if free to move.
In this Specification I have used terms as 'gravitator
cells' and 'gravitator cellular body' which are words of my own
coining in making reference to the particular type of cell I employ in
the present invention. Wherever the construction involves the use of a
pair of electrodes, separated by an insulating plate or member, such
construction complies with the term gravitator cells, and when two or
more gravitator cells are
connected in series within a body, such will fall within the meaning
of gravitator cellular body.
The electrodes A and B are shown as having placed
between them an insulating plate or member C of suitable material,
such that the minimum number of electrons or ions may successfully
penetrate it. This constitutes a cellular gravitator consisting of one
gravitator cell.
It will be understood that, the cells being spaced
substantial distances apart, the separation of adjacent positive and
negative elements of separate cells is greater than the separation of
the positive and negative elements of any cell and the materials of
which the cells are formed being the more readily affected by the
phenomena underlying my invention than the mere space between adjacent
cells, any forces existing between positive and negative elements of
adjacent cells can never become of sufficient magnitude to neutralize
or balance the force created by the respective cells adjoining said
spaces. The uses to which such a motor, wheel or rotor may be put are
practically limitless, as can be readily understood, without
further description. The structure may suitably be called a gravitator
motor of cellular type.
In keeping with the purpose of my invention an apparatus
may employ the electrodes A and B within a vacuum tube. Electrons,
ion, or thermions can migrate readily from A to B. The construction
may be appropriately termed an electronic, ionic, or thermionic
gravitator as the case may be.
In certain of the last named types of gravitator units
it is desirable or necessary to heat to incandescence the whole or a
part of electrode A to obtain better emission of negative thermions or
electrons or at least to be able to control that emission by variation
in the temperature of said electrode A. Since such variations also
influence the magnitude of the
longitudinal force or acceleration exhibited by the tube, it proves to
be a very convenient method of varying this effect and of electrically
controlling the motion of the tube.
The electrode A may be heated to incandescence in any
convenient way as by the ordinary methods utilizing electrical
resistance or electrical induction.
Moreover, in certain types of the gravitator units, now
being considered it is advantageous or necessary also to conduct away
from the anode or positive electrode B excessive heat that may be
generated during the operation. Such cooling is effected externally by
means of air or water cooled flanges that are in thermo connection
with the anode, or it is effected internally by passing a stream of
water, air, or other fluid
through a hollow anode made especially for that purpose.
The gravitator motors may be supplied with the necessary
electrical energy for the operation and resultant motion thereof from
sources outside and independent of the motor itself. In such instances
they constitute external or independently excited motors. On the other
hand, the motors when capable of creating sufficient power to generate
by any method whatsoever all the electrical energy required therein
for the operation of said motors are distinguished by being internal
or self-excited. Here it will be understood that the energy created by
the operation of the motor may at times be vastly in excess of the
energy required to operate the motor. In some instances the ratio may
be even as high as a million to one. Inasmuch as any suitable means
for supplying the necessary electrical energy, and
suitable conducting means for permitting the energy generated by the
motor to exert the expected influence on the same may be readily
supplied, it is now deemed necessary to illustrate details herein. In
said self-excited motors the energy necessary to overcome the friction
or other resistance in the physical structure of the apparatus, and
even to accelerate the motors
against such resistance, is believed to be derived solely from the
gravitational field or the energy of gravitation. Furthermore, said
acceleration in the self excited gravitator motor can be harnessed
mechanically so as to produce usable energy or power, said usable
energy or power, as aforesaid, being derived from or transferred by
the apparatus solely from the energy of gravitation.
`The gravitator motors function as a result of the
mutual and unidirectional forces exerted by their charged electrodes.
The direction of these forces and the resultant motion thereby
produced are usually toward the positive electrode. This movement is
practically linear. It is this primary action with which I deal.
As has already been pointed out herein, there are two
ways in which this primary action can accomplish mechanical work.
First, by operating in a linear path as it does naturally, or second,
by operating in a curved path. Since the circle is the most easily
applied of all the geometric figures, it follows that the rotary form
is the important.
There are three general rules to follow in the
construction of such motors. First, the insulating sheets should be as
thin as possible and yet have a relatively high puncture voltage. It
is advisable also to use paraffin saturated insulators on account of
their high specific resistance. Second,
the potential difference between any two metallic plates should be as
high as possible and yet be safely under the minimum puncture voltage
of the insulator. Third, there should in most cases be as many plates
as possible in order that the saturation voltage of the system might
be raised well above the highest voltage limit upon which the motor is
operated.
Reference has previously been made to the fact that in
the preferred embodiment of the invention herein disclosed the
movement is towards the positive electrode. However, it will be clear
that motion may be had in a reverse direction determined by what I
have just termed 'saturation voltage' by which is meant the efficiency
peak or maximum of action for that particular type of motor; the
theory, as I may describe it, being that as the voltage is increased
the force or action increases to a maximum
which represents the greatest action in a negative to positive
direction. If the voltage were increased beyond that maximum the
action would decrease to zero and thence to the positive to negative
direction.
The rotary motor comprises, broadly speaking, an
assembly of a plurality of linear motors fastened to or bent around
the circumference of a wheel. In that case the wheel limits the action
of the linear motors to a circle, and the wheel rotates in the manner
of a fireworks pin wheel.
I declare that what I claim is
1. A method of producing force or motion, which
comprises the step of aggregating the predominating gravitational
lateral or linear forces of positive and negative charges which are so
co-operatively related as to eliminate or practically eliminate the
effect of the similar and opposing forces which said charges exert.
2. A method of producing force or motion, in which a
mechanical or structural part is associated with at least two
electrodes or the like, of which the adjacent electrodes or the like
have charges of differing characteristics, the resultant,
predominating, uni-directional gravitational force of said electrodes
or the like being utilized to produce linear force or motion of said
part.
3. A method according to Claim 1 or 2, in which the
predominating force of the charges or electrodes is due to the normal
gravitational field and the imposed electrical field.
4. A method according to Claim 1, 2 or 3 in which the
electrodes or other elements bearing the charges are mounted,
preferably rigidly, on a body or support adapted to move or exert
force in the general direction of alignment of the electrodes or other
charge-bearing elements.
5. A machine or apparatus for producing force or motion,
which includes at least two electrodes or like elements adapted to be
differently charged, so relatively arranged that they produce a
combined linear force or motion in the general direction of their
alignment.
6. A machine according to Claim 5 in which the
electrodes or like elements are mounted, preferably rigidly on a
mechanical or structural part, whereby the predominating
uni-directional force obtained from the electrodes or the like is
adapted to move said part or to oppose forces tending to move it
counter to the direction in which it would be moved by the action of
the electrodes or the like.
7. A machine according to Claim 5 or 6 in which the
energy necessary for charging the electrodes or the like is obtained
either from the electrodes themselves or from an independent source.
8. A machine according to Claim 5, 6 or 7, whose force
action or motive power depends in part on the gravitational field or
energy of gravitation which is controlled or influenced by the action
of the electrodes or the like.
9. A machine according to any of Claims 3 to 8, in the
form of a motor including a gravitator cell or a gravitator cellular
body, substantially as described.
10. A machine according to Claim 9, in which the
gravitator, cellular body or an assembly of the gravitator cells is
mounted on a wheel-like support, whereby rotation of the latter may be
effected, said cells being of electronic, ionic or thermionic type.
11. A method of controlling or influencing the
gravitational field or the energy of gravitation and for deriving
energy or power therefrom comprising the use of at least two masses
differently electrically charged, whereby the surrounding
gravitational field is affected or distorted by the imposed
electrical field surrounding said charged masses, resulting in a
unidirectional force being exerted on the system of charged masses in
the general direction of the alignment of the masses, which system
when permitted to move in response to said force in the above
mentioned direction derives and accumulates as the result of said
movement usable energy or power from the energy of gravitation or the
gravitational field which is so controlled, influenced, or distorted.
12. The method of and the machine or apparatus for
producing force or motion by electrically controlling or influencing
the gravitational field or energy of gravitation.
Appendix II (of the Gravitics Situation)
A Quantum Mechanical Approach to the Existence of
Negative
Mass and Its Utilization in the Construction of
Gravitationally Neutralized Bodies
Since the overwhelming majority of electrostatic quantum
mechanical effects rely for their existence on an interplay of
attractive and repulsive forces arising from two types of charge, few
if any fruitful results could come from a quantum mechanical
investigation of gravity, unless there should be two types of mass.
The first type, positive mass; (hereafter denoted as posimass) retains
all the properties attributed to ordinary mass, while the second type,
negative mass (hereafter denoted as negamass) differs only in that its
mass is an inherently negative quantity.
By considering the quantum mechanical effects of the
existence of these two types of mass, a fruitful theory of gravity
will be developed. Theory will explain why negamass has never been
observed, and will offer a theoretical foundation to experimental
methods of detecting the existence of negamass
and utilizing it in the production of gravitationally neutralized
bodies.
To achieve these results, recourse will be made to
Schroedinger's time independent equation with the center of mass
motion removed. This equation is: -h2/2µÆ2ß+Vß = Eß where all symbols
represent the conventional quantum mechanical quantities. Particular
attention will be paid to the reduced mass µ=(m1m2)/(m1+m2) where m1
and m2 are the masses of the two interacting bodies.
One can approach the first obstacle that any theory of
negamass faces, namely the explanation of why negamass has never been
observed, by a consideration of how material bodies would be formed if
a region of empty space were suddenly filled with many posimass and
negamass quanta. To proceed along these lines, one must first
understand the nature of the various possible quantum mechanical
interactions of posimass and negamass.
Inserting the conventional gravitational interaction
potential into Schroedinger's equation and solving for the wave
function ß, yields the result that the probability of two posimass
quanta being close together is greater than the probability of their
being separated. Hence, there is said to be an attraction between
pairs of posimass quanta. By a similar
calculation it can be shown that while the potential form is the same
two negamass quanta repel each other. This arises from the fact that
the reduced mass term in Schroedinger's equation is negative in this
latter case. The type of negamass posimass interaction is found to
depend on the relative sizes of the masses of the interacting posimass
and negamass quanta, being repulsive if the mass of the negamass
quantum is greater in
absolute value than the mass of the posimass quantum, and attractive
in the opposite case. If the two masses are equal in absolute value
the reduced mass is infinite and Schroedinger's equation reduces to
(V - E)ß - 0. Since the solution ß - 0 is uninteresting physically, it
must be concluded that V - E, and, hence, there is no kinetic energy
of relative motion. Thus, while
there is an interaction potential between the equal mass posimass and
negamass quanta, it results in no relative acceleration and thus, no
mutual attraction or repulsion while much could be said about the
philosophical implications of the contradiction between this result
and Newton's Second Law, such discussion is out of the scope of the
present paper, and the author shall, instead, return with the above
series of derivations to a consideration of the construction of
material bodies in a region suddenly filled with many posimass and
negamass quanta.
Because of the nature of the posimass-posimass and
negamass-negamass interactions, the individual posimass quanta soon
combine into small posimass spheres, while nothing has, as yet, united
any negamass quanta. Since it is reasonable to assume that a posimass
sphere weighs more than a negamass quantum in absolute value, it will
attract negamass quanta and begin to absorb them. This absorption
continues until the attraction
between a sphere and the free negamass quanta becomes zero due to the
reduced mass becoming infinite. The reduced mass becomes infinite when
the sphere absorbs enough negamass quanta to make the algebraic sum of
the masses of its component posimass and negamass quanta equal to the
negative of the mass of the next incoming negamass quantum. Thus the
theory predicts that all material bodies after absorbing as many
negamass quanta as they
can hold, weigh the same very small amount, regardless of size.
Since this prediction is in violent disagreement with
experimental fact, one must conclude that the equilibrium arising as a
result of the reduced mass becoming infinite has not yet been reached.
That is, assuming that negamass exists at all, there are not enough
negamass quanta present in the universe to allow posimass spheres to
absorb all the negamass they can hold. One is thus able to explain the
experimental fact that negamass has never been observed by deriving
the above mechanism in which the smaller amounts of negamass that may
be present in the universe are strongly absorbed by the greater
amounts of posimass producing bodies composed of both posimass and
negamass, but which have a net positive, variable, total mass.
Having thus explained why negamass has never been
observed in the pure state, it is next desirable to derive an
experimental test of the existence of negamass through considering the
internal quantum mechanical problem of small amounts of negamass in
larger posimass spheres. One is able to gain much physical insight
into this problem by simplifying it to the qualitatively similar
problem of one negamass quantum in the field of two posimass quanta
that are fixed distance apart. Further simplification from three
dimensions to one dimension and replacement of the posimass quanta
potentials by square barriers, yields a solution in which the ground
state energy E0 of the negamass quantum in the field of one posimass
quantum, is split into two energy levels in the field of the two
posimass quanta. These two levels correspond to even and odd parity
solutions of the wave equation where Eeven lies higher and Eodd lower
than E0. The magnitudes of the differences Eeven-E0 and E0-Eodd depend
on the separation distance between the two posimass quanta, being zero
for infinite separation and increasing as this separation distance is
decreased.
Since the energy of a system involving negamass tends to
a maximum in the most stable quantum mechanical configuration, the
negamass quantum will normally be in state Eeven. When the system is
excited into state Eodd, the negamass quantum will favor the situation
in which the two posimass quanta
are as far apart as possible, since Eodd increases with increasing
separation distance between the two posimass quanta, and the system
tends toward the highest energy state. Thus independent of and in
addition to the attractive posimass posimass gravitational
interaction, there is a repulsive quantum mechanical exchange
interaction between pairs of posimass quanta when the system is in
state Eodd. The result of these two oppositely directed interactions
is that the two posimass quanta are in stable equilibrium at some
separation distance.
Since this equilibrium occurs between all posimass pairs
in an elementary particle, a necessary consequence of the existence of
negamass is that when in the first excited state elementary particles
have a partial crystal structure.
This theoretical conclusion is capable of experimental
verification by performing a Bragg analysis of the elementary particle
crystal structure through shining high energy gamma rays on hydrogen.
Part of the gamma ray energy will be utilized in lowering the system
from energy Eeven to Eodd, and if selective reflection is observed, it
will constitute a striking
verification of the existence of negamass. An order of magnitude
calculation shows that, if the equilibrium distance between pairs of
posimass quanta is one one-millionth the radius of an electron, 100
bev gamma rays will be required to perform this experiment.
Having discussed why negamass has never been observed,
and having derived an experimental test of its existence it is next
desirable to develop an experimental method of utilizing negamass in
the production of gravitationally neutralized bodies by further
consideration of some ideas
previously advanced. It has been pointed out that if a source of
negamass is present, aposimass sphere continues to absorb negamass
quanta until equilibrium is reached as a result of the reduced mass
becoming infinite. Because the sphere thus produced is practically
massless and because the gravitational interaction between two bodies
is proportional to the product of their respective masses, it follows
that the sphere is practically
unaffected by the presence of other bodies. And thus, the problem of
making gravitationally neutralized bodies is reduced to the problem of
procuring a source of negamass quanta. This will be the next problem
discussed.
The binding energy of a negamass quantum in a posimass
sphere may be obtained as one of the eigenvalue solutions to
Schroedinger's Equation. If the negamass quanta in a body are excited
to energies in excess of this binding energy by shining sufficiently
energetic gamma rays on the body these negamass quanta will be emitted
and negamass source will thus be obtained.
To estimate the gamma ray energy required to free a
negamass quantum from a posimass body, certain assumptions must be
made concerning the size and mass of posimass and negamass quanta.
Since these quantities are extremely indefinite, and since the whole
theory is at best qualitative, attempting to estimate the energy would
be a senseless procedure. Suffice it to say that because of the
intimate, sub-elementary particle nature of the posimass-negamass
interaction, it seems reasonable to assume that quite energetic gamma
rays will be required to break this strong bond.
To briefly review what has been shown a quantum
mechanical theory of negamass has been developed based on the
assumptions that gravitational interactions obey the laws of quantum
mechanics and that all possible interactions of negamass and posimass
with themselves and each other follow the well known inverse square
law. This theory explains the experimental fact that negamass has
never been observed, and outlines plausible
experimental methods of determining the existence of negamass and
utilizing it in the construction of gravitationally neutralized
bodies. While these experimental methods may perhaps be out of the
realm of practicality at the present, there is every reason to hope
that they will be performable in the future. At that time, the
plausibility of the existence of negamass and the
theory behind the construction of gravitationally neutralized bodies
from it, will meet their final tests.
SUMMARY PARAGRAPH
A quantum mechanical theory of negative mass is
developed, based on the assumptions that gravitational interactions
obey the laws of quantum mechanics, and that all possible interactions
of negative and positive mass with themselves and each other follow
the well-known inverse square law. This theory explains the
experimental fact that negative mass has never been observed, and
outlines plausible experimental methods of determining the existence
of negative mass and utilizing it in the construction of
gravitationally neutralized bodies.
Prof. F. Mozer
Appendix III (of the Gravitics Situation)
GRAVITY EFFECTS
The order of magnitude of the heat given off by an alloy
as a result of the separation by gravity tension can be reliably
estimated. Suppose we assume that an alloy of half tin and half lead
completely fills a tube 5 meters long and 100 cm2 cross section which
is maintained accurately at a temperature 277° C. At this temperature
the alloy is liquid suppose next
that the tube is raised from a horizontal plane into a vertical
position, i.e. to a position where its length is parallel to the
direction of gravity. If, then, the alloy is free from convection as
it would be if it is maintained at uniform temperature and if it is
held in this position for several months, the percentage of tin at the
bottom of the tube will decrease while the relative amount at the top
will increase. A simple calculation shows that the concentration of
tin at the top is about one tenth of one percent greater than at the
bottom and that approximately one
calorie of heat is given off in the separation progress. If after
several months the tube is again placed so that its length is in a
horizontal plane the tin and lead will remix due to the thermal
agitation of the atoms and heat is absorbed by the alloy.
Another interesting effect occurs when an electrolyte is
subjected to gravity tension. Suppose a five meter glass tube is
filled with a water solution of say barium chloride and the electrical
potential between its ends is measured first when the length of the
tube is parallel to the horizontal and second when its length is
vertical. The difference in potential between the two ends is
practically zero when the tube is
horizontal and approximately eighty five microvolts when it is
vertical.
This effect was discovered by Des Coudres in 1892. If a
resistor is attached across the ends when the tube is vertical, heat
of course is produced. If the tube is maintained at constant
temperature the voltage decreases with time and eventually vanishes.
The effect is believed to result from the fact that the positively
charged barium ions settle faster
than the lighter negatively charged chlorine ions as a result of
gravity tension.
In conclusion, we have seen that gravity tension effects
an alloy in such a way that it gives off heat. This phenomenon results
from the alignment of the atoms and from their separation by the
gravitational field, the contribution of the latter being larger than
that of the former. Also, the gravity tension sets up a potential
across the ends of a tube filled with
an electrolyte and this potential when applied across an external
circuit may produce heat or drive an electric motor to furnish power.
Several other small thermal effects possibly may arise from gravity
tension in addition to those discussed above but space is not
available to consider them in this essay. Also, studies of the effect
of gravitational fields and their equivalent centrifugal fields upon
matter will no doubt be of great value in the future.
J.W. Beams
Appendix IV (of the Gravitics Situation)
LINK BETWEEN GRAVITATION AND NUCLEAR ENERGY
Quantitatively we propose the following field equations:
-kTuv = Ruv +.5Rguv + Cuv(ØÆ)
(.5ÆuÆju + m + LPuvKuv(X))Æ = 0
with a similar equation for Ø. In the above, Æ
represents the hyperon wave functions and Ø the K-particle quantized
field operators. The first three terms in the first equation are the
usual structures in the Einstein General Relativity. The last term,
Cuv is the "creation" tensor which is to give us our conversion from
gravitational to nuclear energy. It is like Tuv in being an energy
momentum term. In the second equation Æju represents the covariant
derivative while Æu is a generalized Dirac matrix arranged so that the
second equation is indeed covariant under the general group of
coordinate transformations. The PuvKuv term will automatically include
the
higher hyperon levels. Cuv is a functional of the hyperon and K-field
variables Æ and Ø. As can be seen these equations are coupled in two
ways first the creation term Cuv depends upon the field variables Æ
and Ø while the gravitational metric tensor guv enters through the
covariant derivative etc. L is a new universal constant giving the
scale of the level spacings of the hyperons. Rigorously speaking the
field equations should be, of course, second quantized. For purposes
of obtaining a workable first
approximation it is probably adequate to take expectation values and
solve the semi classical equations. The creation tensor Cuv must be a
bilinear integral of the Ø and Æ fields and may have cross terms as
well of the form ÆØÆÆ(dx). These equations will indeed be difficult to
solve; but upon solution will give the
distribution of created energy and, hence, lead eventually to the more
practical issues desired.
Appendix V (of the Gravitics Situation)
GRAVITY/HEAT INTERACTION
Let us suppose that we have to investigate the question
whether gravitative action alone upon some given substance or alloy
can produce heat. We do not specify its texture, density nor atomic
structure; we assume simply the
flux of gravitative action followed by an increase of heat in the
alloy.
If we assume a small circular surface on the alloy, then
the gravitative flux on it may be expressed by Gauss' theorem and it
is 4¼M,where M represents mass of all sub-surface particles; the
question is, can this expression be transformed into heat. We will
assume it can be. Now recalling the relativity law connecting mass and
energy:
M = m0 + T/c2 (by Einstein)
where:- T = Kinetic energy
m = Initial mass
c = Velocity of Light
we set 4¼M = m0 +T/c2 = m0 + (m0v2)/2c2
But v2/c2 is a proper fraction: hence M = m0 + m0/2k
In the boundary case v=c, M=m0(1+1/k) for all other
cases 4¼M=m0((k+1)/k)k kÆ0. Strictly M should be preceded by a
conversion factor 1/k but if inserted, it does not alter results. Thus
if gravity could produce heat, the effect is limited to a narrow
range, as this result shows.
It merits stress that in a gravitational field the flow
lines lines of descent -- are Geodesics.
J.W. Wickenden
Appendix VI (of the Gravitics Situation)
WEIGHT-MASS ANOMALY
There is a great need for a precise experimental
determination of the weight to mass ratio of protons or electrons.
Since the ratio for a proton plus an electron is known already, the
determination of the ratio for either particle is sufficient. The
difficulty of a direct determination of the gravitational deflection
of a charged particle in an experiment similar to the neutron or
neutral atom experiment is due to electrical forces being much greater
than gravitational forces. For example, one electron five meters away
from a second electron exerts as much force on that second electron as
the gravitational field does. Thus stray electrons or ions which are
always present on the walls of an apparatus can exert sufficient force
to completely mask the gravitational force. Even if the surface
charges are neglected, image charges of the electron beam itself and
self repulsion in the beam may obscure the gravitational deflection.
An additional problem is the Earth's magnetic field. Electrons of even
a few volts energy will feel a force due to the Earth's field a
thousand billion times larger than the gravitational deflection. This
last problem is avoided in a static measurement of the ratio such as a
weighing of ionised
matter. However, this last method has the additional difficulty of
requiring a high proportion of ionized to unionized matter in the
sample being weighed. Of course all these problems can be resolved to
some extent; but it is questionable if an experiment of either of the
above types can be designed in which all the adverse effects can
simultaneously be sufficiently minimized. Probably a completely new
type of experiment will have to be devised to measure the weight to
mass ratio of the proton or
electron.
Such a measurement may detect a deviation from the law
of constant weight to mass ratio. If such an anomaly can be shown to
exist there is the possibility of finding a material which would be
acted upon in an unusual manner in a gravitational field.
Martin L. Perl.
Ultimately, they go back to Einstein's general theory of
relativity (1916), in which the law of gravitation was first
mathematically formulated as a field theory (in contrast to Newton's
"action-at-a-distance" concept).
Volume XI - No. 5, 1956
pages 373-374
December 1956
by Dr Stanley Deser and Dr Richard Arnowitt