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39 So engrained is the unequal distribution of benefits in this system
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175 Canadell et al. (2007) op. cit.
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180 IEA (2009) CO2 emissions from fuel combustion (Paris: International
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181 Royal Commission for Environmental Pollution (2000) Energy: The
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182 SDC (2003) UK Climate Change Programme: A Policy Audit (London:
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197 IEA (2006) World Energy Outlook 2006 (Paris: OECD/International
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198 toe = tonnes of oil equivalent or 42 GJ.
199 Nuclear power plant emissions include those due to uranium mining,
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means that the lifecycle carbon emissions associated with nuclear are at
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200 Ibid.
201 See: Schimel D, Alves D, Enting I, Heimann M, Joos F, Raynaud D and
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203 This is the default scenario for use with the online version of the
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204 See for example: Meinshausen (2006) op. cit.
205 Unless otherwise noted the model was tuned to IPCC Third Assessment
Report parameters for the climate sensitivity. The model is available
from www.simcap.org and the model and method are described in
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206 The EQW estimates multi-gas emissions pathways by assuming that
emissions of each gas in each region and year correspond to the same
quantile of the respective distribution of emissions in a pool of 54
scenarios (40 non-intervention SRES scenarios and 14 post-SRES
stabilisation scenarios, with fossil fuel CO2 emissions in the OECD
region as the driver path. Emissions follow the median of the 54
scenario set until the departure year (2010 for Annex 1 countries and
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at a constant per centage rate, which is allowed to change at one point
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207 Monbiot G (2008) ‘At last, a date’ The Guardian, December 15.
208 Campbell C (2006) Association for the Study of Peak Oil (ASPO)
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209 For example: Le Quéré et al. (2009) op. cit.; Sheehan (2008) op.
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210 See for example: Editorial (2009) ‘Saved by sequestration?’ Nature
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211 Leggett J (2005) Half gone: oil, gas, hot air and the global energy
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212 Data from the C4MIP Model Intercomparison. See: Friedlingstein et al
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213 Anderson and Bows (2008) op. cit.
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218 Ibid.
219 Cited in Leggett (2005) op. cit.
220 Heinberg R (2003) The party’s over: Oil, war and the fate of
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225 Ibid.
226 Leggett (2005) op. cit.
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228 Besson D (2008) Consommation d’ énergie: autant de dépenses en
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231 Kasparian (2009) op. cit.
232 Woodward D (2001) The next crisis? Direct and equity investment in
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233 IEA (2004) IEA expresses concern about high oil prices as it
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240 Colin Campbell speaking to the Guardian on 21 April 2005.
241 Monbiot G (2007) ‘Our blind faith in oil growth could bring the
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243 Klare M (2004) Blood and oil: The dangers and consequences of
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244 Campbell C (2006) Newsletter No. 72 (Co Cork: The Association for
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245 David Milliband speaking at Cambridge University, March 5, 2007.
246 IEA (2008) Medium term oil report, ‘Despite slowing oil demand, IEA
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247 Ibid.
248 Porter A (7 June 2004) ‘Is the world’s oil running out fast?’ See:
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251 Ferris-Lay C (2008) ‘Oil could reach $300 says expert’
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252 Klare (2004) op. cit.
253 Simmons M (2007) Is the world’s supply of oil and gas peaking?
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255 Gagnon et al. (in preparation), cited in Hall C, Balogh S and Murphy
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256 Rogner H (1996) An assessment of world hydrocarbon resources (Laxenberg,
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257 Mut S (2005) Statement to the Committee on Energy and Natural
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258 For example: Strahan D (2007). The last oil shock: A survival guide
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259 Farrell A and Brandt A (2006) ‘Risks of the oil transition’
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260 Fischer-Tropsch synthesis is a way of converting solid (e.g. oil
shale, coal) or natural gas into liquid fuel. The process involves the
shattering of long chained hydrocarbons into a mixture of hydrogen and
carbon monoxide using high temperatures and intense pressure. This is
also the first step of integrated gasification combined cycle plants (IGCC).
However, instead of the gas being burned it is channelled to a reactor
where a catalyst reunites the carbon and hydrogen to form hydrocarbon
chains of varying lengths, including diesel and petrol. During both
phases – gasification and liquefaction – some carbon is given off as
CO2.
261 Strahan D (2007). The last oil shock: A survival guide to the
imminent extinction of petroleum man (London: John Murray).
262 This figure allows for CO2 leakage at the production phase and the
fact that CO2 emitted at the point of use (e.g. exhaust pipe) cannot be
captured. See: Wang M, Wu M, Huo H (2007) Life-cycle energy and
greenhouse gas results of Fischer-Tropsch diesel produced from natural
gas, coal, and biomass (Washington, DC: Centre for Transportation
Research, Argonne National Laboratory).
263 Farrell and Brandt (2006) op. cit.
264 McKillop A (2006) ‘Peak Oil to Peak Gas is a short ride’ Energy
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265 DBERR (2007) Digest of United Kingdom Energy Statistics 2007
(London: Department of Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform – now
Department for Business, Innovation and Skills).
266 Defra (2008) 2006 UK results for EU Emissions Trading Scheme
(London: Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs). See
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267 DECC (2009) Digest of UK Energy Statistics 2009 (London: Department
of Energy and Climate Change).
268 Simms et al (2009) op. cit.
269 John Mills, Shell vice president addressing the ADIPEC conference, 5
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270 DECC (2009) op. cit.
271 Nakicenovic N, Gritsevskyi A, Grübler A, Riahi K (2000) Global
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272 IEA (2006) op. cit.
273 BP (2006) Statistical Review of World Energy 2006 (London: BP).
274 Heinberg (2007) op. cit.
275 See: www.defra.gov.uk/environment/climatechange/trading/eu/results/index.htm
[29 May 2007].
276 Daley J (2004) High Noon for Gas: The new energy crisis (Vermont:
Chelsea Green Publishing).
277 Ibid.
278 IGU (1997) World Gas Prospects, Strategies and Economics: 20th World
Gas Conference Proceedings (Copenhagen: International Gas Union).
279 BP (2008) Statistical Review of World Energy 2008 (London: BP).
280 Energy Watch Group (2007) Coal: Resources and Future Production
(Berlin: Energy Watch Group).
284 Heinberg R (2008) ‘The great coal rush (and why it will fail)’
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285 Vitello P (2008) ‘Gore’s call to action’ thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/09/24/gores-call-to-action/
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286 SIOCST(2009) The passing of FutureGen: How the Word’s premier clean
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(Washington DC: Subcommittee on Investigations and Oversight of the
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287 Smil V (2008) ‘Long-range energy forecasts are no more than
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288 See for example: Page S, Williamson A and Mason I (2009) ‘Carbon
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292 Geman B (2009) ‘DOE revives FutureGen, reversing Bush-era decision’
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293 Scottish and Southern Energy Spokesman.
294 Statoil have been reinjecting CO2 from natural gas produced in the
Sleipner West gas field since 1996. Every day, approximately 2800 tonnes
of CO2 are removed from the natural gas, re-injected and then stored in
the sandstone formation Utsira, instead of being emitted into the
atmosphere.
295 Myers M (2007) Testimony before the Committee on Energy and Natural
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296 Hawkins D (2007) Testimony before the Committee on Energy and
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297 Lacker K (2003) ‘A guide to CO2 sequestration’ Science 300: 968–972.
298 Huesemann (2006) op. cit.
299 Sally Benson, Executive Director of the Global Climate and Energy
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300 Goodell J (2006) Big Coal: the dirty secret behind America’s energy
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301 Bruant RG (2002) ‘Safe storage of CO2 in deep saline aquifers’
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302 Lelieveld J, Lechtenböhmer S, Assonov S, Brenninkmeijer C, Dienst C,
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303 Husesmann (2006) op. cit.
304 Fischedick M, Esken A, Schüwer D, Supersberger D, Nitsch J, Veibahn
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305 Stone E, Lowe J and Shine K (2009) ‘The impact of carbon capture and
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306 Brumfiel G (2005) ‘Fusion energy: Just around the corner’ Nature
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307 Quoted in WADE (2006) World Survey of Decentralised Energy 2006
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308 Simms A, Kjell P and Woodward D (2005) Mirage and oasis (London: nef).
309 Fleming D (2007) The lean guide to nuclear energy: a life-cycle in
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310 National Renewable Energy Laboratory. See: www.nrel.gov/docs/fy01osti/27637.pdf
311 In terms of work generation from a heat engine (heat is converted to
work), the Carnot efficiency, named after the French Physicist Nicolas
Léonard Sadi Carnot, determines the maximum efficiency in which this can
be achieved.
312 Strahan (2007) op. cit.
313 Ibid.
314 See for example: Yacobucci B and Schnepf R (2007) Ethanol and
biofuels (Washington DC, US: US Congressional Research Service).
315 Tenenbaum D (2008) Food vs. Fuel: Diversion of crops could cause
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316 The World Bank (2007) World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for
Development (Washington DC, US: The World Bank).
317 Searchinger T, Heimlich R, Houghton R, Dong F, A Elobeid, Fabiosa J,
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Science 319: 1238–240.
318 See for example: Hall C, Balogh S and Murphy D (2009) ‘What is the
minimum EROI that a sustainable society must have?’ Energies 2: 25–47;
O’Hare M, Plevin R, Martin J, Jones A, Kendall A and Hopson E (2009)
‘Proper accounting for time increases crop-based biofuels greenhouse gas
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319 Wetlands International (2006) Assessment of CO2 emissions from
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320 Wetlands International (2006) op. cit.
321 Gallagher E (2008) Review of the indirect effects of biofuels
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322 Yacobucci B, Schnepf R (2007) Ethanol and biofuels: agriculture,
infrastructure, and market constraints related to expanded production
(Washington D.C.: Congressional Research Service).
323 Pacala and Socolow (2004) op. cit.
324 Burkeman O (2008) ‘Science chief: Greens hurting climate change
fight’ The Guardian, 12 January.
325 Weather modification, or ‘cloud seeding’ research by the United
States and USSR began in the 1930s. This is the earliest form of ‘geoengineering’.
A negative public reaction to the use of environmental modification as a
tool of warfare that led to the United Nations ‘Convention on the
Prohibition of Military of any other Hostile Use of Environmental
Modification Techniques’ (1977).
326 See for example: The Royal Society (2009) Geoengineering the
Climate: Science, governance and uncertainty (London: The Royal
Society); Blackstock J, Battisti D, Caldeira K, Eardley D, Katz J, Keith
D, Patrinos A, Schrag D, Socolow R, Koonin S (2009) Climate engineering
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327 Victor D (2008) ‘On the regulation of geoengineering’ Oxford Review
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328 Connor S and Green C (2009) ‘Climate scientists: it’s time for Plan
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329 The Royal Society (2009) op. cit.
330 Royal Society (2009) op cit.; Boyd P (2008) ‘Ranking geo-engineering
schemes’ Nature Geoscience 1: 722–734.
331 For a review see: Rasch P, Tilmes S, Turco R, Robock A, Oman L, Chen
C, Stenchikov G and Garcia R (2008) ‘An overview of geoengineering of
climate using stratospheric sulphate aerosols’ Philosophical
Transactions of The Royal Society A 366: 4007-4037.
332 Matthews D and Calderia K (2007) ‘Transient climate-carbon
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333 Robock (2008) op. cit.; Robock et al (2008) ‘Regional climate
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334 Blackstock et al (2009) op. cit.
335 Matthews and Calderia (2007) op. cit.
336 EPICA Community Members (2006) ‘One-to-one coupling of glacial
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337 The Royal Society (2009) op. cit.; Boyd P (2008) op. cit.
338 Matthews and Calderia (2007) op. cit.
339 The Royal Society (2005) Ocean acidification due to increasing
atmospheric carbon dioxide: Policy document 12/05 (London: Royal
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340 Ibid.
341 Caldeira K, Wickett M (003) ‘Anthropogenic carbon and ocean pH’
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342 Blackstock et al (2009) op. cit.
343 Jamieson D (2009) The Ethics of Geoengineering. Available at:
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344 We note there are some processes, such as combined cycle gas
turbines that have achieved energy efficiencies in the order of 50 per
cent.
345 Ausubel J and Marchetti C (1996) ‘Electrical systems in retrospect
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346 Hoffert M, Caldeira K, Benford G, Criswell D, Green C, Herzog H,
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347 Ibid.
348 Philibert C and Pershing J (2002) Beyond Kyoto – Energy Dynamics and
Climate Stabilisation (Paris: OECD/IEA).
349 Much of this section has drawn on the work of Lightfoot H and Green
C (2002) Energy intensity decline implications for stabilisation of
atmospheric CO2 content (Montreal: McGill Centre for Climate and Global
Change Research).
350 Ibid.
351 Ibid.
352 If you utilise 100 per cent of wind energy, you effectively stop the
wind. The Betz limit refers to the best compromise between stopping the
airflow and forcing it around a turbine.
353 Lightfoot and Green (2002) op. cit.
354 ATAC (2005) Air transport industry calls for collaborative
environmental action Press Release. (Geneva: Air Transport Action
Group).
355 Airbus (2004) The Airbus way – Environment: Environment, health and
safety report (Blagnac: Airbus Environmental Affairs).
356 We quote efficiency improvements of 1.3 per cent yr -1 between 2000
and 2010, 1 per cent yr -1 between 2010 and 2020 and 0.5 per cent yr -1.
Source: Owen B, Lee D (2006) Allocation of International Aviation
Emissions from Scheduled Air Traffic – Future Cases, 2005 to 2020
(Report 3 of 3) Manchester: Centre for Air Transport and Environment (CATE),
Manchester Metropolitan University.
357 Gossling S, Peeters P (2005) ‘It does not harm the environment!’ –
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358 ACARE (2002) Strategic research agenda volume 2: The challenge of
the environment (Brussels: Advisory Council for Aeronautics Reseach in
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359 Peeters PM, Middel J, Hoolhorst A (2005) Fuel efficiency of
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360 Williams V (2007) ‘The engineering options for mitigating the
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361 Peeters et al (2005) op. cit.
362 Ibid.
363 Kubiszewski I, Cleveland C and Endres P (2008) EROI for wind energy.
Available at www.eoearth.org/ article/Energy_return_on_investment_(EROI)_for_wind_energy
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364 Hall C, Balogh S and Murphy D (2009) ‘What is the minimum EROI that
a sustainable society must have?’ Energies 2: 25–47.
365 Sachs W (1999) Planet dialectics: explorations in environment and
development (New York: St Martin’s Press).
366 Ausubel and Marchetti (1996) op. cit.
367 Metz B, Davidson O, Swart R and Pan J (2001) Climate change 2001:
Mitigation – Contribution of Working Group III to the Third Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press).
368 Ofgem (2003) Electricity distribution losses: a consultation
document (London: Ofgem).
369 WADE is a non-profit research and promotion organisation whose
mission is to accelerate the worldwide development of high efficiency
cogeneration (CHP) and decentralized renewable energy systems that
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373 Ibid.
374 Jochem E (1991) ‘Long-term potentials of rational energy use – the
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376 Jacobson MZ, Delucchi MA (2008) ‘A path to sustainable energy by
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377 Hansen et al. (2009) op. cit.
378 Bows A, Calverley D, Broderick J and Anderson K (2009) Making a
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379 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), International Labour
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380 Holdren J, Morris H and Mintzer I (1980) ‘Enviromental aspects of
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382 Jacobsen and Delucchi (2008) op. cit.
383 Farrell A, Plevin R, Turner B, Jones A, O’Hare M, Kammen D (2006)
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384 Kleiner K (2008) ‘The backlash against biofuels’ Nature Climate
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385 Ibid.
386 Eliasson Baldur (1998) Renewable Energy, status and prospects,
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388 Jacobsen and Delucchi (2008) op. cit.
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391 Ibid.
392 Huesemann (2006) op. cit.
393 Ibid.
394 Weber L (1997) ‘Some reflections on barriers to the efficient use of
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395 IEA (1987) Energy Conservation in IEA Countries 1987 Review (Paris:
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396 Nakicenovic and Gruebler (1993) ‘Energy conversion, conservation and
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397 Lightfood and Green (2002) op. cit.
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399 IEA (2005) Oil crises and climate challenges: 30 years of energy use
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402 Huesemann (2006) op. cit.
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404 Hirsch et al. (2005) op. cit.
405 For a discussion of pro-poor growth and the need for distribution of
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406 Kropotkin P (1902) Mutual Aid: A factor of evolution (London:
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407 See for example: Lloyd C (2009) What on earth evolved?: 100 species
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408 Daly (1996) op. cit.
409 Ibid.
410 Thompson S, Abdallah S, Marks N, Simms A (2006) The Happy Planet
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411 Johnson and Simms (2008) op. cit.
412 Daly (1993) op. cit.
413 Daly (1973) op. cit.
414 Juniper T, Murphy R, Elliott L, Leggett J, Hines C, Secrett C, Lucas
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