10 - Conclusion
The Scientist as Fellow Traveler

This book began with a distinction between “Nazi” scientists and the scientists who served National Socialism.

 

Yes, some scientists enthusiastically embraced Hitler’s movement, but they are only part of the story. The German scientific community and most of its members entered into a Faustian pact with National Socialism, trading financial and material support, official recognition, and the illusion of professional independence for conscious or unconscious support of National Socialist policies culminating in war, the rape of Europe, and genocide.


Ironically, the initial Ideological attacks on German science served to drive scientists into the arms of military, industrial, and political allies and thereby into an ever closer collaboration with Hitler’s movement. This relationship, in contrast to the discredited and discarded politicized scientific movements like Deutsche Physik, was based not on ideology, rather utility.

 

Johannes Stark was one of Hitler’s first and most loyal followers, but although he was honored as an Old Fighter by the National Socialist movement, by the end of the Third Reich his party comrades had rejected him as a scientist and science policy maker in favor of “white Jews” like Werner Heisenberg.


The fact that German science collaborated with the National Socialists also explains the persistent and pernicious myth of scientific resistance to Hitler. If decent, moral men like Otto Hahn, Werner Heisenberg, Max Planck, Max von Laue, and Carl Friedrich von Weizsacker stayed in Germany and worked within the National Socialist system, then, the story goes, they must have been passively or actively resisting Adolf Hitler.

 

But the popular black-and-white picture of the Third Reich as a place where it was easy to see right and wrong, full of villains and heroes, is a simplistic caricature. It only appears that simple with hindsight. The history of the Prussian Academy and Heisenberg’s guest lectures provide a more realistic picture of the Third Reich. National Socialism often pulled scientists very slowly and gently into its terrible grasp.


The ambiguous and ambivalent nature of National Socialism often makes it difficult to judge German scientists who stayed and worked for their government. But there is no such problem when judging the postwar apologia.

 

After the war there was no totalitarian state or secret police to fear; after the war these scientists could speak their minds and tell the truth. The recorded conversations from Farm Hall demonstrate how these scientists reacted to the hard questions that followed the defeat of National Socialism. They spawned self-serving and self-deluding myths and legends which in time took on a life of their own. The unending debate over “Hitler’s bomb” is only the most prominent example.


Finally, one question remains. Was science under National Socialism a special case? This question can only be answered through comparison with scientists in other countries or at other times, but such analysis is problematic. When historians begin to compare the Third Reich or the Holocaust with other regimes and genocides, some critics feel that the unique evil of National Socialism is being trivialized - and in some cases, for example the recent Historikerstreit (historians’ dispute), they would be right.852

 

But it must be possible to both respect the unique, terrible nature of National Socialism and compare it with other periods in history. The fact remains that French scientists served the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror,853 Soviet scientists served Stalin,854 and - admittedly a much less extreme case - most American scientists acquiesced in the excesses of McCarthyism.


Science under National Socialism remains so controversial, fascinating, and disturbing because of a taboo: the scientist as fellow traveler.

 

The overwhelming majority of German scientists neither resisted Hitler, nor embraced National Socialism. Instead, they were apolitical professionals, doing what scientists do. Scientists often like to celebrate the “apolitical” nature of science. But one consequence of such science is taboo. It is precisely this apolitical nature of scientific research that allows good scientists to do good science, no matter who their employer or patron is or where this research may lead.

 

Moreover, as far as science in the Third Reich was concerned, fellow travelers were often far more dangerous than either Hitler’s true believers or his bitter opponents.

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 Abbreviations

AA Auswdrtiges Ami (German Foreign Office)
AdW Akademiearchiv der Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Academy Archives of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences), Berlin
AIP American Institute of Physics, College Park, Maryland
BAK Bundesarchiv (Federal Archives), Koblenz
BAP Bundesarchiv (Federal Archives), Potsdam
BDC Berlin Document Center
DAAD Deutsche Akademische Austauschdienst (German Academic Exchange Service)
DFG Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation)
DMM Deutsches Museum (German Museum), Munich EBK Erich Bagge Papers, Kiel
Deutsches Wissenschaftliches Institut (German Cultural Institute)
Gerald Kuiper Papers, University of Arizona, Tucson
Hamburger Staatsarchiv (Hamburg State Archive)
Archiven der Humboldt Universitat (Archives of the Humboldt University), Berlin
Institut fUr Zeitgeschichte (Institute of Contemporary History), Munich
Kaiser-Wilhelm Gesellschaft (Kaiser Wilhelm Society)
Ludwig Prandtl Papers, Gottingen
Max Planck Institut fur Physik und Astrophysik (Max Planck Institute for Physics and Astrophysics), Munich
Archiven der Max Planck Gesellschaft (Max Planck Society Archives), Berlin
National Archives and Records Services, Washington, D.C.
Niels Bohr General Correspondence, Niels Bohr Institute, Copenhagen
Notgemcinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft (Emergency Foundation for German Science)
Nachgeordnete Reichsdienststellen (Subordinate Reich Agencies)
Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers Party)
Nationalsozialistische Lehrerbund (National Socialist Teachers League)
Oberstes Parteigericht (Highest Party Court)
Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt (Imperial Physical-Technical Institute)
Reichserziehungsministerium (Reich Ministry of Education)
RIM Reichsinnenministerium (Reich Ministry of the Interior)
RUB Rektorder Universitat Berlin (Rektor of Berlin University)
RUL Rektor der Universitat Leipzig (Rektor of Leipzig University)
SA Stumiabteilung (Storm troopers)
SBB Staatsbibliothek, Preussischer Kulturbesitz (State Prussian Library), Berlin
SGA Sitzung der Gesamt-Akademie (Meetings of the Full Academy)
SMV Sachsiscnes Minis terium fur Volksbildung (Saxon Ministry of Education)
SPM Sitzung der physikalisch-mathematischen Klasse (Meetings of the Scientific Class)
SS Schutzstaffein (Security Squad)

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 Endnotes

1. Renneberg and Walker, (1993).
2. My approach, using a spectrum of “shades of gray” to examine science under National Socialism, has been misunderstood by some critics; for example, the historian Alan Beyerchen has recently characterized my work as “blame assessment,” “the identification not of the criminals but collaborators,” and the “meting out of justice”; see Beyerchen, (1992), 632-4.
3. Hoffmann, (1982), 93.
4. Hoffmann, (1982), 91.
5. Kleinert, in Olff-Nathan (1993), 151.
6. Forman, “Helmholtz.”
7. Kleinert, (1979), 501.
8. Kleinert, (1979), 501.
9. Kleinert, (1978).
10. Beyerchen, (1977), 92.
11. Kleinert (1979), 502-7; for Lenard, also see Beyerchen, (1977), 79-102.
12. Kleinert, in Albrecht (1993).
13. Hentschel, (1990), 134.
14. Hentschel, (1990), 133.
15. Kleinert (1979), 502-7.
16. Beyerchen, (1977), 92-3.
17. Hentschel, Annals, (1992).
18. Glaser to Stark (24 Sep 1920) Nachlass Stark, Mappe Glaser, Hand-schriftenabteilung Staatsbibliothek Berlin (henceforth SBB); for Nauheim, see Forman, “Nauheim.”.
19. Glaser, (1920), 33.
20. Beyerchen, (1977), 111-12; Hoffmann, (1990), 44; Kleinert in Olff-Nathan (1993), 151-54.
21. Beyerchen, (1977), 104.
22. Kleinert (1979), 509.
23. Laue, (1923).
24. Beyerchen, (1977), 106.
25. Beyerchen, (1977), 122.
26. Spielvogel, (1992), 37-8.
27. Stark to the Oberstes Parteigericht (henceforth OPG) (7 Nov 1937) Stark, Berlin Document Center (henceforth BDC).
28. Beyerchen, (1977), 96.
29. Beyerchen, (1977), 4.
30. Information in the BDC.
31. Hoffmann, (1982), 95-6.
32. Stark to the OPG (1 Jul 1936) Stark BDC.
33. Stark to the OPG (7 Nov 1937) Stark BDC.
34. Gurtner to Hess (30 Jan 1936) Stark BDC.
35. Kleinert in Olff-Nathan (1993), 160.
36. See Kershaw, (1987), 83-104.
37. See Beyerchen, (1977), 15-78.
38. Fischer, (1991), 540-41.
39. Albrecht and Hermann, (1990); also see Macrakis, (1993).
40. Also see chapters 4 and 6.
41. Also see chapter 8.
42. Stark to Lenard (3 Feb 1933), in Kleinert, (1980), 35.
43. Lenard to Hitler (21 Mar 1933), in Beyerchen, (1977), 100.
44. Laue to Gerlach (25 Jul 1933), in Heinrich and Bachmann (1989), 73.
45. Stark to Frick (4 Nov 1933), in Kleinert, (1980), 43.
46. Stark to Lenard (3 May 1933), in Kleinert, (1980), 36.
47. Lenard to Stark (8 May 1933), in Kleinert, (1980), 36.
48. Stark to Lenard (27 Aug 1933), in Kleinert, (1980), 36.
49. Laue, (1947).
50. Laue, (1961).
51. Heilbron, (1986), 160.
52. Beyerchen, (1977), 114-15.
53. Hoffmann in Albrecht (1993), 122-24; Stark to Siebert (28 May 1934) 15.19 67/39 Bundesarchiv Potsdam (henceforth BAP).
54. Hoffmann in Albrecht (1993), 121-31; Stark to Siebert (28 May 1934) 15.19 67/39 BAP.
55. Stark to Ministry of the Interior (henceforth RIM) (26 Oct 1933) 15.01 26770/110 BAP.
56. RIM, “Aktenvermerk,” (17 Nov 1933) 15.01 26770/179-81 BAP.
57. Donnevert (RIM), “Aktenvermerk,” (Nov 1933) 15.01 26770/174 BAP.
58. Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 203-11; Kershaw, (1991), 1-15; Kershaw, (1993), 48-58; Renneberg and Walker, (1993), 1-11.
59. Stark to RIM (5 Dec 1933) 15.0126770/219 BAP.
60. Hoffmann in Albrecht (1993), 126.
61. Stark to REM (28 Nov 1933) 15.01 26774/252 BAP.
62. Stark, (24 Feb 1934).
63. Stark, (21 Apr 1934).
64. Stark to RIM (24 Apr 1934) 15.19 65/328 BAP.
65. Nationalsozialistes Lehrerbund (henceforth NSLB) to Stark (1 Nov 1934) 15.19 65/169 BAP.
66. Stark to NSLB (8 Nov 1934) 15.19 65/171 BAP.
67. Stark to Hertz (13 Feb. 1936) 15.19 73/195 BAP.
68. Stark to Goebbels (23 Aug 1934) 15.19 65/276 BAP.
69. Beyerchen, (1977), 118.
70. Reprinted in Stark, (15 Jul 1937).
71. Stark to Goebbels (23 Aug 1934) 15.19 65/276 BAP.
72. Beyerchen, (1977), 117.
73. Stark to Lammers (5 Mar 1935) 15.19 68/80 BAP.
74. Stark to Schumann (3 Jul 1935) 15.19 67/132 BAP.
75. Beyerchen, (1977), 117.
76. Stark to Lenard (23 Jun 1934), in Kleinert (1980), 35.
77. Richter, (1973), 204.
78. Hermann, (1979), 83.
79. RIM to REM (Aug 1934) 15.0126770/227 BAP.
80. See Beyerchen, (1977), 117-22.
81. Planck to Stark (31 Jan 1935) 15.19 65/359-61 BAP.
82. See Cassidy, (1991), 346-414.
83. Gall to Stark (3 Jul 1934) 15.19 65/255 BAP.
84. Stark to Gall (7 Jul 1934) 15.19 65/ 256 BAP.
85. Lenard to Stark (5 Dec 1934), in Hoffmann, (1989), 191.
86. Stark to Lenard (20 Dec 1934), in Hoffmann, (1989), 7.
87. Vahlen (REM) to Stark (29 Aug 1934) 15.19 67/188 BAP.
88. Lenard, (1935).
89. Richter, (1980), 117.
90. Kleinert (1979), 508.
91. Hoffmann, (1989), 192.
92. Beyerchen, (1977), 143.
93. Menzel, (29 Jan 1936).
94. Stark, (28 Feb 1936).
95. “Liste der Teilnehmer am Reichslager der Fachabteilung Physik, Darmstadt, von 14.-17.2.36,” 15.19 68/131-42 BAP.
96. Willi Menzel, “Bericht uber das Lager der Reichsfachabteilung Physik in Darmstadt vom 14, bis 17. Februar des Jahres” 15.19 68/131-42 BAP.
97. Stark to Wagner (24 Jul 1934) Stark BDC.
98. Wagner to Gurtner (26 Apr 1935) Stark BDC.
99. Gurtner to Hess (30 Jan 1936) Stark BDC.
100. Nippold to Bouhler (17 Feb 1936) Stark BDC.
101. Wagner to Gaugericht Munchen-Oberbayern (22 Feb 1936) Stark BDC.
102. Nippold to Gorlitzer (4 Mar 1936) Stark BDC.
103. Wagner to Gurtner (11 Mar 1936) Stark BDC.
104. Stark to OPG (29 Jun 1936).
105. Stark to OPG (1 Jul 1936) Stark BDC.
106. Gaugericht Gross-Berlin to OPG (18 Mar 1936) Stark BDC.
107. OPG to Gaugericht Gross-Berlin (16 May 1936) Stark BDC; Gorlitzer to Wagner (7 Jul 1936) Stark BDC.
108. Der Stellvertreter des Fuhrers to OPG (26 Nov 1937) Stark BDC.
109. Rust to Hitler (3 Feb 1936), in Albrecht and Hermann (1990), 382.
110. Stark to Lenard (3 Feb 1936) in Kleinert (1980), 36.
111. Stark to Lenard (11 Apr 1936) in Kleinert (1980), 37.
112. Lenard to Stark (24 Apr 1936) in Kleinert (1980), 38.
113. Stark to Lenard (29 Apr 1936) in Kleinert (1980), 38.
114. Beyerchen, (1977), 121.
115. Reischle to Himmler (24 Sep 1936) Stark BDC.
116. Stark to Mentzel (13 Feb 1937) 15.19 70/149-50 BAP.
117. Beyerchen, (1977), 121-22.
118. Stark to Lenard (12 Nov 1936) in Kleinert (1980), 38.
119. Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 167-87.
120. Wirz to Stark (18 Nov 1936) 15.19 71/326 BAP.
121. Ziegler to Stark (21 Nov 1936) 15.01 71/350 BAP.
122. Biihler to Stark (26 Nov 1936) 15.19 69/52 BAP.
123. Mentzel to Stark (4 Jan 1937) 15.19 70/144 BAP.
124. Stark to Mentzel (8 Jan 1937) 15.19 70/148 BAP.
125. Mentzel to Stark (18 Feb 1937) 15.19 70/153 BAP.
126. OPG to Stark (25 Jan 1937) Stark BDC
127. OPG, “Vernehmungsprotokoll,” (1 Feb 1937) Stark BDC.
128. Stark to OPG (4 Feb 1937) Stark BDC.
129. Volkmann (OPG), “Aktennotiz,” (13 Mar 1937) Stark BDC.
130. Wagner to OPG (31 Mar 1937) Stark BDC.
131. Stark to Bewilogua (24 Jun 1937) 15.19 69/74 BAP.
132. Debye to Stark (6 Dec 1937) 15.19 69/84 BAP.
133. Bayer. Staatsmin. fur Unterricht und Kultur to REM (9 Mar 1937) Heisenberg BDC.
134. Wesch to Stark (19 Jun 1937) 15.19 71/301 BAP.
135. REM to Stark (22 Jun 1937) 15.19 71 /53 BAP.
136. Heisenberg to Spectabilitat, Uni. Leipzig (17 Jul 1937) Uk. H185 IV, 45, Archives of the Humboldt University, Berlin (henceforth HUB).
137. “WeisseJuden” (15 Jul 1937).
138. “Weisse Juden” (15 Jul 1937).
139. Richter, (1980).
140. Hund to Rektor der Uni. Leipzig (henceforth RUL) (16 Jul 1937) Uk. H185 IV, 44 HUB.
141. Stark, (15 Jul 1937).
142. Nature to Stark (13 Oct 1937) 15.19 70/189 BAP.
143. Stark to Nature (15 Oct 1937) 15.19 70/190 BAP.
144. Nature to Stark (20 Oct 1937) 15.19 70/191 BAP.
145. Beyerchen, (1977), 77.
146. Rugemer, (1937).
147. Stark to Ziegler (4 Jan 1938) 15.19 71/363 BAP.
148. Stark, (30 Apr 1938).
149. See Kleinert (1979).
150. Kleinert in Olff-Nathan (1993), 162-63.
151. Himmler to Heisenberg (21 Jul 1938) Goudsmit, American Institute of Physics (henceforth AIP).
152. Himmler to Heydrieh (21 Jul 1938) Goudsmit AIP.
153. OPG to Stark (14 Oct 1937) Stark BDC.
154. Oberlandesgerichts Munchen to OPG (26 Jan 1937) Stark BDC; Gaugericht Munchen-Oberbayern to OPG (21 Jun 1937) Stark BDC; Gaugericht Munchen-Oberbayern to OPG (1 Nov 1937) Stark BDC.
155. Stark to OPG (26 Oct 1937) Stark BDC.
156. Stark to OPG (7 Nov 1937) Stark BDC.
157. Stark to OPG (23 Dec 1937) Stark BDC.
158. Schneider to Hess (16 Nov 1937) Stark BDC.
159. Hansen to OPG (11 Jan 1938) Stark BDC.
160. “In Sachen des Prof. Dr. Johannes Stark/’ (17 Jan 1938) Stark BDC; for Stark’s fight with Wagner, see also Stark, (1987), 118-22.
161. For the “Sommerfeld Succession,” see Cassidy (1991), 346-414.
162. Stark to Thiiring (27 Jan 1938) 15.19 71 /206 BAP.
163. Thiiring to Stark (1 Feb 1938) 15.19 71/207 BAP.
164. Miiller to Stark (20 Apr 1934) 15.19 66/69 BAP.
165. Stark to Longer (23 Jul 1937) 15.19 70/92 BAP.
166. Miiller, (1939).
167. Beyerchen, (1977), 166.
168. Beyerchen, (1977), 171.
169. Kleinert in Olff-Nathan, (1993), 151.
170. Hentschel and Renneberg, (1994).
171. Beyerchen, (1977), 177-79,192.
172. Heisenberg to Sommerfeld (4 Dec 1940) Sommerfeld, German Museum, Munich (henceforth DMM).
173. Gaupersonalamt to Gauschulungsamt im Hause (28 Oct 1942) Tomaschek BDC.
174. Heisenberg to Sommerfeld (4 Dec 1940) Sommerfeld DMM.
175. For Einstein attacked as a plagiarist, see Hentschel, (1990), 150-61, and Heisenberg, (1943).
176. See chapters 6 and 7.
177. Honl to Heisenberg (17 Nov 1942) Heisenberg, in Max Planck Institute for Physics, Munich (henceforth MPI).
178. Sommerfeld to the Rektorat der Uni. Munchen (1 Sep 1940) Sommerfeld DMM.
179. Prandtl, “Uber die theoretische Physik,” (28 Apr 1941) Ludwig Prandtl Papers, Gottingen (henceforth LPG).
180. See Beyerchen (1977) and Walker, (1989).
181. REM to Miiller (21 Aug 1941) Sommerfeld DMM.
182. Stark to Miiller (11 Apr 1941) Sommerfeld DMM.
183. Kleinert (1979), 509.
184. Miiller to Rektor Wiist (23 Jun 1941) Sommerfeld DMM.
185. Miiller to Kelter (11 Dec 1941) Sommerfeld DMM.
186. Miiller to the Rektor (28 Jun 1942) Sommerfeld DMM.
187. Miiller to Bergdolt (30 Sep 1942) Sommerfeld DMM.
188. Muller to Stark (24 Apr 1943) Sommerfeld DMM,
189. Selmayer to the Headquarters of General Eisenhower (2 May 1945) Sommerfeld DMM.
190. Muller to Stark (15 Apr 1944) Sommerfeld DMM.
191. Glaser to Stark (1 Feb 1938) 15.19 69/203 BAP.
192. Dingier to unknown addressee (3 Apr 1938) Glaser BDC.
193. Information in the BDC; Glaser joined in February of 1932.
194. Kanzlei des Fuhrers to the Reichsleitung der NSDAP (5 Apr 1944) Glaser BDC.
195. Glaser, “Geist,” (1939), 175.
196. Beiseitigung.
197. Glaser, “Feinstruktur,” (1939), 329.
198. Thuring to Muller (24 Jun 1941) Sommerfeld DMM.
199. Finkelnburg to Gerlach (28 Jan 1941) in Heinrich and Bachmann, (1989) 80.
200. SA Gruppe Hochland to Kanzlei des Fuhrers (5 Dec 1942) Glaser BDC; Glaser to Muller (29 Sep 1941) Sommerfeld DMM; Glaser to Muller (18 Nov 1941) Sommerfeld DMM.
201. Muller to Geisler (18 Sep 1942) Sommerfeld DMM.
202. Verwaltungsausschuss der Uni. Munchen to Muller (29 Sep 1942) Sommerfeld DMM.
203. Glaser to Muller (10 Oct 1942) Sommerfeld DMM.
204. Kleinert in Olff-Nathan, (1993), 161-2; see Nagel, (1991).
205. Renneberg and Walker in Renneberg and Walker, (1993), 1-11.
206. Stark to Lenard (20 Apr 1934), in Kleinert (1980), 35.
207. Kleinert in Olff-Nathan, (1993), 162.
208. Kreisleiter Freisling, “Bestatigung,” (9 Sep 1936) Stark BDC; SA Sturmbannfuhrer, “Bescheinigung uber die Tatigkeit in der S.A. und Partei,” (14 Sep 1936) Stark BDC.
209. Stark, (1987), 135-37.
210. Kleinert, (1983), 14.
211. Kleinert, (1983), 16-18.
212. Beyerchen, (1977), 198,206-7.
213. Kleinert (1983), 22; rferufungskarnrner Munchen to Heisenberg (18 May 1949) Heisenberg MPI.
214. Heisenberg to Berufungskarrtmer Munchen (24 May 1949) Heisenberg MPI; Kleinert, (1983), 22.
215. Kleinert, (1983), 22.
216. Heisenberg to Berufungskammer Munchen (24 May 1949) Heisenberg MPI; Kleinert, (1983), 22.
217. Stark, (1987), IV; Stark, (1947); see also Stark, (1987), 123-31.
218. Beyerchen, (1977), 203.
219. Beyerchen, (1977), 1.
220. Beyerchen, (1977), 201.
221. I do not mean to imply that Beyerchen’s work is apologia, or that he presents a simplistic portrayal of science under Hitler. Although his book is mainly devoted to Lenard, Stark, and Deutsche Physik, he also provides an insightful and critical analysis of the physics community in general.
222. Dieter Hoffmann to the author (15 Jan, 11 Mar 1993).
223. Haberer, (1969), 165.
224. Richter (1980), 130.
225. Kleinert (1979), 513.
226. Grau, Schlicker, and Zeil, (1979), 9,11.
227. Grau, Schlicker, and Zeil, (1979), 172-5.
228. See for example Haberer, (1969), 103-84, here 144.
229. Heilbron, (1986), 61-62.
230. Heilbron, (1986), 77-78.
231. For Planck’s relationship with National Socialism, see Heilbron, (1986) and Albrecht in Albrecht (1993).
232. Heilbron, (1986), 155; for the Einstein affair in general see Grau, Schlicker, and Zeil, (1979), 7-12.
233. Letter from Planck to Einstein on March 19, quoted in Heilbron, (1986), 155.
234. Letter from von Laue to Einstein, quoted in Mehrtens, (1993), 327.
235. Heilbron, (1986), 158; Einstein’s letter was written on April 12.
236. “Sitzung der Gesamt-Akademie” (henceforth SGA) (30 Mar 1933) II-V, 102, Archives of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences, Berlin (henceforth AdW).
237. Heilbron, (1986), 157; Heymann’s statement was released on April 1.
238. Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 523-25; also see chapters 2 and 8.
239. Grau, Schlicker, and Zeil, (1979), 9.
240. SGA (6 Apr 1933) II-V, 102 AdW.
241. Heilbron, (1986), 159.
242. Grau, Schlicker, and Zeil, (1979), 11.
243. SGA (6 Apr 1933) II-V, 102 AdW.
244. Haberer, (1969), 116.
245. Grau, Schlicker, and Zeil, (1979), 12.
246. Eckert, (1992), 40,44-8.
247. Extraordinarius.
248. Heilbron, (1986), 115,120.
249. For the Stark Affair in general, see Grau, Schlicker, and Zeil, (1979), 172-75,
250. Grau, Schlicker, and Zeil, (1979), 173; Hoffmann, (1982), 97-8.
251. Beyerchen, (1977), 115-16; Grau, Schlicker, and Zeil, (1979), 172-75; Heilbron, (1986), 160-61.
252. Laue, (1947).
253. Hoffmann, (1989).
254. “Sitzung der phys.-math. Klasse” (henceforth SPM) (25 Feb 1937) 11-V, 138 107 AdW.
255. Vahlen to Heisenberg (8 Sep 1942) Heisenberg MPI; Heisenberg to Vahlen (10 Sep 1942) Heisenberg MPI.
256. Beyerchen, (1977), 64-66.
257. “Verzeichnis der Dozenten fur Mathematik an der Universitat Berlin und deren Verurteilung in politischer und wissenschaftlicher Hin-sicht,” Bieberbach BDC.
258. Laue to Stark (2 Dec 1936) 15.19 70/95 BAP.
259. Also see Grau, Schlicker, and Zeil, (1979).
260. Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 220-32, esp. 223-25.
261. Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 523-25,553-65.
262. Pfundtner (RIM) to die Landesregierungen (11 Jun 1934) II-IV, 9 AdW; REM to die nachgeordneten Reichsdienststellen (henceforth NRD) (14 Aug 1934) II-IV, 9 AdW.
263. RIM to die Landesregierungen und die Herrn Reichsstatthalter (21 Jun 1934) II-IV, 9 AdW; REM to die NRD (6 Jul 1934) II-IV, 9 AdW.
264. Der preussische Justizminister, “Strafsachen” (6 Jul 1934) II-IV, 9 AdW.
265. REM to NRD (23 Mar 1935) II-IV, 9 AdW.
266. PAW to its members (20 Sep 1935) II-IV, 9 AdW.
267. SGA (24 Oct 1935) II-V, 103 AdW.
268. SGA (5 Dec 1935) II-V, 103 AdW.
269. REM to NRD (30 Aug 1937) II-IV, 10 AdW,
270. RIM to die Obersten Reishsbehorden (18 Dec 1937) II-IV, 10 AdW.
271. “Auszug aus dem Protokoll der Sekretariatssitzung” (13 Jul 1933) II-IV, 21/43 AdW.
272. See below.
273. “Verhandlungsniederschrift der Vertretersammlung des Verbandes der deutschen Akademien am Freitag, den 26. Mai 1933 in Leipzig” (26 May 1933) II-XII, 9 AdW.
274. Heidelberg Academy to PAW (22 Dec 1935) II-XII, 10 AdW.
275. “Auszug aus dem Protokoll der Sekretariatssitzung” (26 Sep 1935) II-IV, 9 AdW.
276. REM to NRD (30 Jan 1936) II-IV, 10 AdW.
277. REM to NRD (11 Jan 1936) II-IV, 10 AdW; PAW to REM (20 Jan 1936) II-IV, 10 AdW.
278. PAW to REM (2 Jan 1936) II-IV, 10 AdW; REM to NRD (9 Apr 1937) II-IV, 10 AdW.
279. SGA (8 Feb 1934) II-V, 103 AdW.
280. SGA (26 Sep 1935) II-V, 103 AdW.
281. See chapter 2.
282. Frick & Goebbels, “Trauererlass zum Ableben des Reichsprasidenten von Hindenburg von 2. August 1934” (2 Aug 1934) II-IV, 9 AdW.
283. Paul Harteck, “Diensteid,” (19 Dec 1934) HSWD- & PH 1206 Bd. 1 HSA.
284. Frick (RIM) to die Obersten Reichsbehorden (21 Aug 1934) II-IV, 9 AdW.
285. Rust (REM) to NRD (12 Jul 1935) II-IV, 9 AdW.
286. See chapter 2.
287. REM, “Betrifft: Ernennungen und Beforderungen von Beamten, AngesteUten, und Arbeitern” (6 Nov 1934) II-IV, 9 AdW.
288. SPM (30Jan 1936) II-V, 138/57 AdW.
289. PAW to Beamten, AngesteUten und Mitarbeiter der Akademie (26 Sep 1936) II-IV, 10 AdW.
290. SGA (10 Jan 1935) II-V, 103 AdW.
291. SGA (30 Apr 1936) II-V, 103 AdW.
292. SGA (14 May 1936) II-V, 103 AdW.
293. SPM (21 Feb 1935) II-V, 138/9 AdW.
294. Grau, Schlicker, and Zeil, (1979), 48.
295. This information comes from Bieberbach, BDC.
296. Mehrtens, in Renneberg and Walker, (1993), 291-311 & 406-8, here 298-99; also see Mehrtens, in Renneberg and Walker, (1993), 324-38 & 411-13.
297. SGA (24 Oct 1935) Il-V, 103 AdW.
298. For Ludendorff and National Socialism, see Hentschel, Turm, (1992).
299. SPM (13 Feb 1936) II-V, 138/61 AdW.
300. SPM (27 Feb 1936) II-V, 138/66 AdW.
301. SPM (6 Jun 1935) II-V, 138/27 AdW.
302. SGA (15 Oct 1936) II-V, 103 AdW.
303. SGA (30 Apr 1936) II-V, 103 AdW.
304. SGA (14 May 1936) II-V, 103 AdW.
305. SGA (6 Feb 1936) II-V, 103 AdW.
306. SGA (20 Feb 1936) II-V, 103 AdW.
307. SGA (5 Mar 1936) II-V, 103 AdW.
308. SGA (4 Feb 1937) II-V, 104 AdW.
309. SGA (18 Feb 1937) II-V, 104 AdW.
310. “Aktenvermerk” (25 Feb 1937) II-I, 12/11 AdW; also see Grau, Schlicker, and Zeil, (1979), 62.
311. REM to PAW (17 Apr 1937) II-I, 12/17 AdW.
312. Wacker (REM) to das Sachisiche Ministerium fur Volksbildung (10 Feb 1937) II-XII, 10 AdW; REM to PAW (10 Feb 1937) II-I, 12/20 AdW.
313. “Aktenvermerk” (25 Feb 1937) II-I, 12/11 AdW.
314. PAW to REM (1 Mar 1936) II-I, 12/24 AdW.
315. “Protokoll der Ausserordentlichen Kartellsitzung der Deutschen Akademien, Berlin am 24. April 1937,” (24 Apr 1937) II-XII, 10 AdW.
316. SGA (29 Apr 1937) II-V, 104 AdW.
317. SGA (27 May 1937) II-V, 104 AdW.
318. von Ficker (PAW) to Kees (8 May 1937) II-XII, 10 AdW.
319. SPM (25 Feb 1937) II-V, 138/107 AdW.
320. SPM (11 Feb 1937) II-V, 138/104 AdW.
321. Information in Vahlen, BDC; for Vahlen also see Siegmund-Schultze, (1984).
322. Siegmund-Schultze, (1984), 19-21.
323. Siegmund-Schultze, (1984), 27.
324. Vahlen to Heisenberg (8 Sep 1942) Heisenberg MPI; Heisenberg to Vahlen (10 Sep 1942) Heisenberg MPI.
325. Siegmund-Schultze, (1984).
326. Lenard to Stark (3 Apr 1936) in Kleinert, (1980), 36.
327. Lenard to Vahlen (6 Apr 1936) in Kleinert, (1980), 37.
328. Stark to Lenard (6 Apr 1936) in Kleinert, (1980), 37.
329. Stark to Lenard (11 Apr 1936) in Kleinert, (1980), 37,
330. Siegmund-Schultze, (1984), 22; the two mathematicians were G. Doetsch and Karl Willi Wagner.
331. SGA (15 Apr 1937) II-V, 104 AdW.
332. Bieberbach to die physikalische-mathematische Klasse der PAW (19 Apr 1937) n-1,12/1 AdW.
333. SPM (13 May 1937) II-V, 139/6 AdW.
334. SGA (10 Jun 1937) II-V, 104 AdW.
335. SGA (24 Jun 1937) II-V, 104 AdW.
336. REM to Vahlen (25 Oct 1937) Vahlen BDC.
337. SS Sicherheitsdienst to die Personalkanzlei des Reichsfuhrers-SS (29 Jun 1936) Vahlen BDC.
338. Rust (REM) to PAW (8 Oct 1938) II-1,13/16 AdW.
339. Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 536-37.
340. Rust (REM) to PAW (8 Oct 1938) II-L13/16 AdW.
341. SGA (13 Oct 1938) II-V, 104 AdW.
342. PAW to REM (14 Oct 1938) U-1,13/16 AdW.
343. Spielvogel, (1992), 273-4; Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 553-565.
344. REM to PAW (22 Nov 1938) II-1,13/27 AdW.
345. Meissner, Vahlen, Bieberbach, Kraft, and Grapow to PAW (before 1 Dec 1938) II-1,13/33 AdW.
346. SGA (1 Dec 1938) II-1,13/34 AdW.
347. SGA (1 Dec 1938) Il-V, 104 AdW; SGA (1 Dec 1938) II-L13/36 AdW.
348. SGA (15 Dec 1938) II-V, 104 AdW.
349. PAW to REM (22 Dec 1938) II-1,13/50 AdW.
350. REM to PAW (24 Dec 1938) II-L 13/59 AdW.
351. SGA (12 Jan 1939) II-V, 104 AdW.
352. Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 697-99.
353. SPM (19 Jan 1939) II-V, 139/64-66 AdW.
354. REM to PAW (17 Sep 1938) II - III, 107/1 AdW.
355. SPM (19 Jan 1939) II-V, 139/64-66 AdW.
356. SGA (26 Jan 1939) II-V, 104 AdW.
357. SGA (26 Jan 1939) II-V, 104 AdW.
358. SGA (2 Mar 1939) II-V, 104 AdW.
359. SGA (22 Mar 1939) II-V, 104 AdW.
360. SGA (15 Jun 1939) Il-V, 104 AdW.
361. SGA (15 Jun 1939) II-V, 104 AdW.
362. SGA (29 Jun 1939) II-V, 104 AdW.
363. Heilbron, (1986), 173.
364. For the international context during the Weimar Republic and early years of the Third Reich, see Schroeder-Gudehus, (1972); Schroeder-Gudehus, (1973); and especially Schroeder-Gudehus, (1978).
365. SGA (24 Jun 1937) II-V, 104 AdW.
366. SGA (23 Jun 1938) II-V, 104 AdW.
367. SGA (20 Oct 1938) H-V, 104 AdW.
368. SGA (17 Mar 1938) II-V, 104 AdW.
369. SGA (2 Nov 1939) II-V, 104 AdW.
370. SPM (18 Apr 1940) I-V, 139/110 AdW.
371. Reichstauschstelle (REM) to PAW (4 Dec 1936) II-XVI, 81/1 AdW; Jurgens to PAW (31 Jan 1938) II-XVI, 81/63 AdW.
372. SPM (7 Dec 1939) II-V, 139/100 AdW.
373. PAW to REM (9 Jan 1940) II-XVI, 81 AdW.
374. “Sitzungdermath.-naturw.Klasse” (7Nov 1940)II-V, 139/121 AdW.
375. Bieberbach to REM (30 Sep 1941) II-XVI, 58 AdW; REM to Vahlen (19 Jan 1942) II-XVI, 58 AdW.
376. SGA (25 Jul 1940) H-V, 104 AdW.
377. SGA (2 Nov 1939) II-V, 104, AdW.
378. SGA (16 Sep 1940) II-V, 104 AdW.
379. Staats- und Universitats-Bibliothek Posen to PAW (27 Nov 1940) II-XVI, 73 AdW; PAW to Staats- und Universitats-Bibliothek Posen (2 Dec 1940) II-XVI, 73 AdW.
380. REM to PAW (6 Dec 1940) II-XVI, 73 AdW.
381. Staats- und Universitats-Bibliothek Posen to PAW (2 Jan 1941) II-XVI, 73 AdW.
382. Staatsbibliothek (Amt des Generalgourvemeurs) to PAW (17 Feb 1941) II-XVI, 73 AdW.
383. SGA (24 Apr 1941) II-V, 104 AdW.
384. Kungl. Vitterhets Histoire och Antikvitets Akademien to PAW (7 Dec 1943) n-XIV 87/116 AdW.
385. SGA (13 Jan 1944) II-V, 104 AdW.
386. SGA (24 Feb 1944) II-V, 104 AdW.
387. Rorig to Schuck (7 May 1944) H-XIV, 87/146 AdW.
388. SPM (8 Jun 1939) II-V, 139/86 AdW.
389. SGA (22 Jun 1939) II-V, 104 AdW; SGA (29 Jun 1939) II-V, 104 AdW.
390. SGA (25 Mar 1943) II-V, 104 AdW.
391. “Sitzung der math.-naturw. Klasse” (5 Mar 1941) II-V, 139/162 AdW.
392. SGA (29 Feb 1940) II-V, 104 AdW.
393. SGA (13 Jul 1939) II-V, 104 AdW.
394. SGA (27 Nov 1941) II-V, 104 AdW.
395. SGA (19 Nov 1942) II-V, 104 AdW.
396. REM to Vahlen (16 Oct 1939) Vahlen BDC; Vahlen to Personalamt der Schutzstaffeln (Berlin) (9 Nov 1939) Vahlen BDC; Vahlen to Personalamt der Schutzstaffeln (Berlin) (1 Mar 1940) Vahlen BDC; Personalamt der Schutzstaffeln (Berlin) to Vahlen (5 Mar 1940) Vahlen BDC.
397. Vahlen to Himmler (19 Feb 1943) Vahlen BDC; “Vermerk” (23 Feb 1943) Vahlen BDC; Brandt to Sievers (25 Feb 1943) Vahlen BDC.
398. Sievers (Ahnenerbe) to Brandt (13 Mar 1943) Vahlen BDC.
399. Himmler to Vahlen (25 Mar 1943) Vahlen BDC.
400. Brandt to von Herrff (10 Oct 1943) Vahlen BDC.
401. SS-Personalhauptamt to Vahlen (3 Feb 1944) Vahlen BDC.
402. Brandt to Vahlen (14 Feb 1944) Vahlen BDC.
403. SGA (24 Jul 1941) II-V, 104 AdW.
404. SGA (25 Nov 1943) II-V, 104 AdW.
405. SGA (16 Dec 1943) II-V, 104 AdW.
406. “Sitzung der math.-naturw. Klasse” (6 Jan 1944) II-V, 139/212 AdW.
407. SGA (9 Mar 1944) II-V, 104 AdW.
408. Fakultat fur Naturwissenschaften to TU Wien (3 Apr 1944) Vahlen BDC; TU Wien to REM (8 May 1944) Vahlen BDC.
409. SGA (6 Jul 1944) II-V, 104 AdW.
410. SGA (1 Feb 1945) II-V, 104 AdW.
411. SGA (6 Jun 1945) II-V, 104 AdW.
412. SGA (21 Jun 1945) II-V, 104 AdW.
413. SGA (14Jun 1945) II-V, 104 AdW.
414. SGA (28 Jun 1945) II-V, 104 AdW.
415. “Aufzeichnung” (-Jun 1945) II-I, 14/16 AdW.
416. SGA (12 Jul 1945) II-V, 104 AdW.
417. SGA (6 Dec 1945) II-V, 104 AdW.
418. SGA (2 Aug 1945) II-I, 14/18 AdW.
419. SGA (23 Aug 1945) II-V, 104 AdW.
420. SGA (13 Dec 1945) II-V, 104 AdW.
421. SGA (13 Dec 1945) II-V, 104 AdW.
422. SGA (20Dec 1945) II-V, 104 AdW; Stroux to Magistratder Stadt Berlin Abteilung Wissenschaft (27 Dec 1945) II-I, 14/31 AdW.
423. Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften to various institutes (19 Apr 1945) II-IV, 10 AdW.
424. Deutsche Zentralverwaltung fur Volksbildung to Akademie der Wis-senschaften (4 Oct 1946) II-IV, 10 AdW.
425. Siegmund-Schultze, (1984), 31, footnote 19.
426. Haberer, (1969), 145.
427. See chapter 10.
428. Das Preussische Min. fur Wissenschaft, Kunst and Volksbildung to Rektor der Uni. Berlin (henceforth RUB) (23 May 1933) PF 162, 62 HUB.
429. RUB to die Mitglieder des Lehrkorpers (26 Jan 1934) PF 162,66 HUB; SGA II-V, 103 AdW.
430. German Foreign Office (henceforth AA) to samtliche Reichsminister-ien (30 Sep 1934) PF 162,82 HUB.
431. REM to Rektoren aller deutschen Hochschulen (9 Jan 1935) PF 1408, 45 HUB.
432. REM to Rektoren aller deutschen Hochschulen (26 Jan 1937) PF 1408, 41 HUB.
433. SGA II-V, 103 AdW.
434. SGA II-V, 103 AdW.
435. Sachsisches Min. fur Volksbildung (henceforth SMV) to die phil. Fak. der Uni. Leipzig, (5 Jan 1929) Uk. H185 III, 20 HUB; SMV to die phil. Fak. der Uni. Leipzig (2 Feb 1929) Uk. H185 III, 24 HUB.
436. SMV to Heisenberg (21 May 1932) Uk. HI85 HI, 35 HUB.
437. Dekane der Uni. Leipzig to Heisenberg (10 Nov 1933) Uk. H185 III, 36 HUB; Heisenberg to phil. Fak. (29 Nov 1933) Uk. H185 III, 37 HUB.
438. Heisenberg to Dekan der phil. Fakultat (Kobe) (29 May 1934) Uk. H185 III, 38 HUB; Dekan to Heisenberg (1 Jun 1934) Uk. H185 III, 39 HUB.
439. Heisenberg to RUL (19 Feb 1936) Uk. H185 III, 41 HUB; REM to RUL (30 Mar 1936) Uk. H185 III, 42 HUB.
440. Heisenberg to RUL (30 May 1936) Uk. 11185 III, 44 HUB.
441. Hoffmann, (1988); for Jordan also see Wise, (1993) and Beyler, (1994).
442. Heisenberg to RUL (3 Apr 1937) REM 2944,15 BAP.
443. RUL to REM (22 Apr 1937) REM 2944,14 BAP; Dozentenschaft der Uni. Leipzig to RUL (13 Apr 1937) REM 2944,16 BAP.
444. Dozentenschaft der Uni. Leipzig to RUL (13 Apr 1937) REM 2944,16 BAP.
445. Volkischer Beobachter (29 Jan 1936); Volkischer Beobachter (29 Feb 1935); see chapters 2 and 3.
446. Heisenberg to RUL (16 Jul 1937) REM 2944,112 BAP; RUL to REM (28 Jul 1937) REM 2944, 111 BAP; REM to RUL (12 Aug 1937) REM 2944,113 BAP.
447. Rektor der Uni Halle-Wittenberg to REM (15 May 1936) REM 2943, 433 BAP; Geiger to Rektor der Uni. Tubingen (23 May 1936) REM 2943,442 BAP; Rektor der Uni. Tubingen, “Vermerk,” (27 May 1936) REM 2943, 442 BAP; Dopel to Rektor der Uni. Wurzburg (29 May 1936) REM 2943, 440 BAP; Rektor der Uni. Wurzburg to Bayer. Staatsministerium fur Unterricht und Kultur (3 Jun 1936) REM 2943, 441 BAP; REM to Rektor der Uni. Halle (9 Jun 1936) REM 2943,434 BAP; REM to AA (23 Jun 1936) REM 2943,448 BAP; REM to AA (27 Jun 1936) REM 2943,457 BAP.
448. Geiger to Rektor der Uni. Tubingen (17 Jun 1936) REM 2943,454 BAP.
449. Rektor der Uni. Kiel to REM (19 Jun 1936) REM 2943,462 BAP; REM to Rektor der Uni. Kiel (6 Jul 1936) REM 2943,471 BAP; Gauleitung Schkswig-Holstein to Rektor der Uni. Kiel (23 Jun 1936) REM 2943, 468 BAP; Rektor der Uni. Kiel to REM (25 Jun 1936) REM 2943,469 BAP.
450. Sauter to Rektor der Uni. Gottingen (25 May 1936) REM 2943, 443 BAP; Sauter’s membership in the NSDAP is documented in the BDC.
451. Rektor der Uni. Gottingen to REM (28 May 1936) REM 2943,444 BAP; REM to Gestapo (Best) (23 Jun 1936) REM 2943, 451 BAP; REM, “Vermerk,” 23 Jun 1936) REM 2943,451 BAP.
452. REM to Universitatskurator Gottingen (29 Jun 1936) REM 2943,464 BAP.
453. Regener to Rektor der TH. Stuttgart, (4 May 1936) REM 2943,435 BAP.
454. REM to Wurttembergischer Kultusminister (11 Jun 1936) REM 2943, 437 BAP.
455. Wurttembergischer Kultusminister to REM (12 Jun 1936) REM 2943, 446 BAP.
456. REM to Wurttembergischer Kultusminister (23 Jun 1936) REM 2943, 448-49 BAP.
457. For both the period of relative calm during the Third Reich and “The Night of Broken Glass,” see Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 547-65.
458. Das Schwarze Korps (15 Jul 1937); see chapters 2 and 3.
459. Heisenberg to Dekan der phil. Fak. der Uni. Leipzig (17 Jul 1937) Uk. H185IV, 45 HUB.
460. Das Preussische Min. fur Wissenschaft, Kunst and Volksbildung to PAW (28 Apr 1933) II-IV, 9 AdW.
461. REM to PAW (10 Sep 1936) II-IV, 10 AdW.
462. RUL to Reichsstatthalter in Sachsen (22 Jul 1937) Uk. H185 IV, 50
HUB.
463. Heisenberg to Dekan der Uni. Leipzig (22 Feb 1938) Uk. H185IV, 42 HUB.
464. Heisenberg to Sommerfeld (14 Apr 1938) 1977-28/A, 136 (18 DMM),
465. See chapters 2 and 3.
466. Prandtl to Himmler (12 Jul 1938) LPG; for Prandtl also see Trischler, (1993).
467. Kreisleiter (Gottingen) to das Amt fur Technik Gauamtsleitung (28 May 1937) Prandtl BDC.
468. Himmler to Prandtl (21 Jul 1938) Heisenberg BDC; Himmler to Heisenberg (21 Jul 1938) Goudsmit AIP; Himmler to Heydrich (21 Jul 1938) Goudsmit AIP.
469. Heisenberg to Himmler (23 Jul 1938) Goudsmit AIP; Heisenberg to Sommerfeld (23 Jul 1938) 1977-28/A, 136 (21 DMM).
470. Heisenberg to Sommerfeld (24 Nov 1938) 1977-28/A, 136 (?? DMM.
471. Prandtl to Heckmann (29 Nov 1938) Heckmann BDC.
472. SMV (Studentkowski) to RUL (Knick) (22 Dec 1938) Uk. H185IV, 37 HUB.
473. Heisenberg to RUL (9 Jan 1939) Uk. H185IV, 29 HUB.
474. RUL to Heisenberg (12 Jan 1939) Uk. H185IV, 30 HUB; REM to RUL (21 Jan 1939) Uk. H185IV, 31 HUB.
475. Wemer Heisenberg, “Bericht iiber eine Vortragsreise nach Holland,” (1 Feb 1939) Uk. H185IV, 35 HUB.
476. Heisenberg to RUL (13 Apr 1939) Uk. H185IV, 25 HUB.
477. RUL to REM (19 Apr 1939) H185IV, 26 HUB.
478. REM to RUL (27 May 1939) Uk. H185IV, 27 HUB; REM to Rektor der Montanistischen Hochschule in Leoben (11 Oct 1939) REM 2943,410 BAP.
479. See chapters 2 and 3.
480. Erxleben to Parteikanzlei (9 Sep 1942) MA 116/5 Wissenschaft Heisenberg, Institut fur Zeitgeschichte, Munich (henceforth IZG) and Borger to Parteikanzlei (9 Sep 1942) MA 116/5 Wissenschaft Heisenberg IZG; Heisenberg to Sommerfeld (30 Jan 1939) 1977-28/A, 136 (25 DMM; Heisenberg to Sommerfeld (15 Feb 1939) 1977-28/A, 136 (26 DMM; Heisenberg to Sommerfeld (3 Mar 1939) 1977-28/A, 136 (28 DMM; Heisenberg to Sommerfeld (13 May 1939) 1977-28/A, 136 (30 DMM).
481. SS to REM (26 May 1939) REM 2943,370-71 BAP.
482. Also see Cassidy, (1991), 50-63.
483. SS to REM (26 May 1939) REM 2943,370-71 BAP.
484. Prandtl to Himmler (12 Jul 1938) LPG; Himmler to Heisenberg (7 Jun
1939) Goudsmit AIP.
485. REM to PAW (13 Aug 1937) II-IV, 10 AdW.
486. Parteikanzlei to REM (12 Jan 1939) REM 2943,373 BAP.
487. Parteikanzlei to REM (22 Jun 1939) REM 2943,369 BAP.
488. Esau BDC.
489. REM to Esau (25 Aug 1939) Uk. H185IV, 28 HUB.
490. Esau to REM (13 Jun 1939) REM 2943,367 BAP.
491. REM to Parteikanzlei (25 Aug 1939) REM 2943,391-92 BAP.
492. Heisenberg to Dekan der phil. Fak. der Uni. Leipzig (19 Sep 1939) Uk. H185 III, 45 HUB.
493. Heisenberg to Dekan der phil. Fak. der Uni. Leipzig (26 Sep 1939) Uk. H185 HI, 46 HUB; Heisenberg to phil. Fak. der Uni. Leipzig (15 Jun 1940) Uk. H185 III, 47 HUB.
494. Heisenberg to Sommerfeld, (4 Sep 1939) 1977-28/A,136 (32 DMM).
495. Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 597-8; Spielvogel, (1992), 243.
496. REM, “Merkblatt,” (1 Jun 1942) Heisenberg MPI; REM, “Merkblatt,” (1 Mar 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
497. REM to RUB (3 Aug 1939) PF 1408, (149-50 HUB.
498. REM to RUB, (19 Jun 1941) PF 1483,105 HUB.
499. REM, “Merkblatt,” (1 Jun 1942) Heisenberg MPI,
500. REM to RUB (2 Jul 1941) PF 1483,107 HUB; REM, “Merkblatt,” (1 Jun 1942) Heisenberg MPI; REM to Rektor Uni. Berlin (6 Jul 1942) PF 1484, 33 HUB.
501. For the General Government, see Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 922-6.
502. REM to RUB (31 Oct 1939) PF 1483,59 HUB.
503. REM to RUB (16 Jul 1942) PF 1484,34 HUB.
504. REM to RUB (24 Sep 1942) PF 1484,37 HUB.
505. REM to RUB (16 Jul 1942) PF 1484,34 HUB.
506. Heisenberg to RUL (5 Nov 1940) Uk. H185IV, 24 HUB.
507. “Memo,” (8 Nov 1940) Uk. H185IV, 24 HUB.
508. Heisenberg to RUL (4 Dec 1940) Uk, H185IV, 23 HUB.
509. Dozentenfiihrer to RUL (9 Dec 1940) Uk. H185IV, 23 HUB.
510. RUL to REM (11 Dec 1940) Uk. H185IV, 22 HUB.
511. REM to RUL (24 Jan 1941) Uk. H185IV, 21 HUB.
512. REM to RUL (19 Mar 1941) Uk. H185IV, 20 HUB.
513. Coblitz to Heisenberg (20 May 1941) Heisenberg MPI.
514. Mehrtens, (1986), 344.
515. Weinreieh, (1946), 95-7,
516. REM to Frank (29 Jul 1941) REM 690,67 BAP.
517. Heisenberg to Coblitz (6 Jun 1941) Heisenberg MPI.
518. RUL to REM (23 Jun 1941) Uk. H185IV, 16 HUB.
519. RUL to REM (23 Jul 1941) Uk. H185IV, 14 HUB.
520. REM to RUL (9 Sep 1941) Uk. H185IV, 13 HUB,
521. REM to Frank (29 Jul 1941) REM 690,67 BAP.
522. Der Bevollmachtigte des Deutschen Reiches, Denmark to AA (Berlin) (27 Mar 1941) REM 2943,524-25 BAP.
523. AA, “Vermerk,” (16 Apr 1941) REM 2943,525 BAP.
524. Von Weizsacker to the author (23 May, 13 Jun, 26 Jun, 1 Aug, and 5 Aug 1990).
525. REM to KWG (8 May 1941) REM 2943, 528 BAP; KWG to REM (20 May 1941) REM 2943,529 BAP.
526. REM to AA (3 Jun 1941) REM 2943,530 BAP.
527. Der Bevollmachtigte des Deutschen Reiches, Denmark to AA (27 Jun 1941) REM 2943,537 BAP.
528. Von Weizsacker to German Academic Exchange Service (henceforth DAAD) (22 Jun 1941) REM 2943,538 BAP.
529. AA to REM (2 Aug 1941) REM 2943,531 BAP.
530. Von Weizsacker to Bohr (15 Aug 1941) Niels Bohrs General Correspondence, Niels Bohr Institute, Copenhagen (henceforth NBC).
531. REM to REM (WT) (18 Aug 1941) REM 2943,539 BAP.
532. REM to AA (28 Aug 1941) REM 2943,533 BAP [never sent].
533. REM, “Vermerk,” (21 Aug 1941) REM 2943,532 BAP.
534. REM, “Vermerk,” (2 Sep 1941) REM 2943,534-35 BAP.
535. For Mentzel’s position, see SGA II-V, 104 AdW.
536. REM, “Vermerk,” (2 Sep 1941) REM 2943,534-35 BAP.
537. REM to Parteikanzlei, (around 2 Sep 1941) REM 2943,535 BAP.
538. REM, “Vermerk,” (11 Sep 1941) REM 2943,536 BAP.
539. REM to RUL (9 Sep 1941) Uk. H185IV, 13 HUB.
540. REM, “Vermerk,” (11 Sep 1941) REM 2943,536 BAP.
541. Werner Heisenberg, “Bericht,” (23 Sep 1941) REM 2943,547 BAP.
542. Carl Friedrich von Weizsacker, “Bericht,” (1 Oct 1941) REM 2943, 549-50 BAP.
543. Crowther, (1949), 108.
544. Feinberg, (1989).
545. Mott and Peierls, (1977), 236.
546. Der Bevollmachtigte des Deutsehert Reiches, Denmark (Seelos) to AA (26 Sep 1941) REM 2943,544-45 BAP.
547. AA to REM (27 Nov 1941) REM 2943,557 BAP.
548. Burrin, (1994); see below.
549. Prandtl to Goring (28 Apr 1941) LPG; Ludwig Prandtl, “Uber die theoretische Physik,” (28 Apr 1941) LPG; Prandtl to Joos (29 May 1941) LPG; Joos to Prandtl (6 Jun 1941) LPG; Prandtl to Ramsauer (8 Jun 1941) LPG.
550. Prandtl to Ramsauer (31 Oct 1941) LPG.
551. Prandtl to Milch (13 Nov 1941) LPG.
552. Lucht to Prandtl (3 Dec 1941) LPG.
553. Ramsauer to Rust (20 Jan 1942) LPG.
554. Prandtl to Ramsauer (28 Jan 1942) LPG.
555. Finkelnburg to Heisenberg (6 May 1942) Heisenberg MPI; Heisenberg to Finkelnburg (22 May 1942) Heisenberg MPI; Heisenberg to Jordan (31 Jul 1942) Heisenberg MPI; Sommerfeld to Heisenberg (19 Oct 1942) Heisenberg MPI.
556. Schumann to Harteck, 4 Feb 42, Erich Bagge Papers, Kiel (henceforth EBK); President of the Reich Research Council to Harteck (21 Feb 42) EBK; Heisenberg to Rust (20 Feb 42) Heisenberg MPI.
557. Rust to Lorenz (12 Feb 42) 29-993 David Irving Microfilm Collection, AIP (henceforth Irving).
558. Goudsmit, (1983), 168-71.
559. Otto Hahn, “Die Spaltung des Urankerns,” (26 Feb 1942) G-150 German Reports, AIP.
560. Paul Harteck, “Die Gewirunung von schwerem Wasser,” (26 Feb 1942) G-154 German Reports, AIP.
561. Werner Heisenberg, “Die theoretischen Grundlagen fur die Ener-giegewinnung aus der Uranspaltung,” (26 Feb 1942), reprinted in Heisenberg, (1989), 517-21.
562. Otto Hahn, “Die Spaltung des Urankerns,” (26 Feb 1942) G-150 German Reports, AIP.
563. Paul Harteck, “Die Gewinnung von schwerem Wasser,” (26 Feb 1942) G-154 German Reports, AIP.
564. The figure is taken from a subsequent talk, Werner Heisenberg, “Die Energiegewinnung aus der Atomkernspaltung,” (6 May 1943), reprinted in Heisenberg, (1989), 570-75.
565. Heisenberg, (1989), 517-21.
566. Heisenberg to Goudsmit, (5 Jan 48), Goudsmit AIP.
567. Heisenberg, (1989), 517-21.
568. Hahn’s diary (26 Feb 42), 29-021 Irving, AIP.
569. Newspaper clipping (paper unknown) (27 Feb 42), “Physik und Landesverteidigung,” Max Planck Society Archives, Berlin (henceforth MPGB).
570. Finkelnburg to Heisenberg (6 May 42) Heisenberg MPI.
571. Goebbels, (1948), 140.
572. Hans Meckel to the Editor, Die Welt (5 Jun 1991), 5.
573. Parteikanzlei to Hartle (8 Jul 1942) MA 116/5 Wissenschaft Heisenberg IZG; Erxleben to Parteikanzlei (9 Sep 1942) MA 116/5 Wissenschaft Heisenberg IZG; Borger to Parteikanzlei (9 Sep 1942) MA 116/5 Wissenschaft Heisenberg IZG.
574. Parteikanzlei to Hartle (8 Jul 1942) MA 116/5 Wissenschaft Heisenberg IZG; Forstmann (KWG) to Heisenberg (13 Oct 1942) Heisenberg MPI; Telschow to Mentzel (1 Mar 1943) Irving, AIP.
575. Heisenberg to Schmellenmeier (10 Jan 1944) Heisenberg MPI.
576. Borger to Parteikanzlei (9 Sep 1942) MA 116/5 Wissenschaft Heisenberg IZG.
577. Erxleben to Borger (10 Jul 1942) MA 116/5 Wissenschaft Heisenberg IZG; Erxleben to Parteikanzlei (9 Sep 1942) MA 116/5 Wissenschaft Heisenberg IZG.
578. Scherrer to Heisenberg (26 May 1942) Heisenberg MPI; Heisenberg to Dekan phil. Fak. der Uni. Leipzig (10 Jun 1942) Heisenberg MPI.
579. Stueckelberg to Heisenberg (20 Aug 1942) Heisenberg MPI; Studen-tenschaft der Universitat Bern to Heisenberg (7 Sep 1942) Heisenberg MPI; Fischer to Heisenberg (23 Oct 1942) Heisenberg MPI; Studen-tenschaft der Universitat Basel to Heisenberg (2 Nov 1942) Heisenberg MPI.
580. REM to Heisenberg (21 Oct 1942) Heisenberg MPI.
581. RUL to REM (30 Jul 1942) Uk. H185 m, 7 HUB.
582. NSDAP to Heisenberg (28 Oct 1942) Heisenberg MPI.
583. Werner Heisenberg, “Bericht,” (11 Dec 1942) Heisenberg MPI.
584. Deutsche Gesandtschaft to AA (17 Oct 1942) REM 2943,89 BAP.
585. KWG (Forstmann) to REM (4 Nov 1942) REM 2943,86 BAP.
586. REM, “Vermerk,” (19 Nov 1942) REM 2943,90 BAP.
587. REM to AA (26 Nov 1942) REM 2943,93 BAP.
588. Werner Heisenberg, “Bericht,” (11 Dec 1942) Heisenberg MPI.
589. Carl Friedrich von Weizsacker, “Bericht,” (around 10 Dec 1942) REM 2943,97 BAP.
590. Max Planck, “Bericht,” (10 Dec 1942) REM 2943,94 BAP; for further information concerning Planck’s foreign lectures, see Heilbron, (1986), 183-91.
591. Deutsche Gesandtschaft (Prag) to AA (6 Jan 1943) REM 2943,99-100 BAP.
592. For the state of the war see Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 839-45, and Kershaw, (1987), 189-99.
593. Laue to PAW (11 Dec 1942) II-III, 66/7 AdW; SGA II-V, 104 AdW; REM to PAW (17 Apr 1943) II-III, 66/7 AdW.
594. REM to RUB (11 Mar 1943) Uk. H185II, 8 HUB.
595. Bieberbach to Heisenberg (22 Mar 1943) Uk. H185II, 8 HUB; Dozen-tenfuhrer to RUB (17 Mar 1943) Uk. H1851,18 HUB.
596. REM to Heisenberg (17 Jul 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
597. Heisenberg to Bieberbach (25 Mar 1943) Uk. H1851,20 HUB.
598. Samuel Goudsmit, “Interview with ‘F.J.’,” (31 Aug 1944) M1108 File 26, National Archives and Records Service (henceforth NAARS).
599. REM to Heisenberg (24 Feb 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
600. Heisenberg to DAAD (9 Mar 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
601. Heisenberg to REM (9 Apr 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
602. Heisenberg to Army Ordnance (13 Jan 43) Heisenberg MPI; Schumann to Heisenberg (18 Jan 43) Heisenberg MPI; Heisenberg to Hahn (22 Jan 43) Heisenberg MPI.
603. Ramsauer to Prandtl (12 May 42, LPG; Carl Ramsauer, “Uber Leis-tung und Organisation der angelsachischen Physik: Mit Ausblicken fur die deutsche Physik,” (2 Apr 1943) G-241 German Reports, AIP.
604. Abraham Esau, “Einleitung,” (5 May 1943) G-214 German Reports, AIP; Abraham Esau, “Herstellung von Leuchtfarben ohne Anwen-dung von Radium,” (5 May 1943) G-213 German Reports, AIP.
605. Otto Hahn, “Kunstliche Atomumwandlung und Atomkernspal-tung,” (5 May 1943) G-226 German Reports, AIP.
606. Klaus Clusius, “Isotopentrennung,” (5 May 1943) G-207 German Reports, AIP.
607. Walther Bothe, “Die Forschungsmittel der Kernphysik,” (5 May 1943) G-205 German Reports, AIP.
608. Heisenberg, (1989), 570-75.
609. Boettcher to Heisenberg (21 Apr 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
610. Heisenberg to Boettcher (30 Apr 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
611. REM to Heisenberg (15 Jun 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
612. REM to Heisenberg (31 Jul 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
613. Heisenberg to REM (11 Aug 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
614. Kramers to Heisenberg (29 Jul 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
615. Kramers to Heisenberg (5 Jul 1944) Heisenberg MPI.
616. Heisenberg to REM (20 Aug 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
617. Heisenberg to Kramers (20 Aug 1943) Heisenberg MPI,
618. Kramers to Heisenberg (1 Sep 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
619. REM to Heisenberg (6 Sep 1943) Heisenberg MPI; Reichskommissar fur die besetzten niederlandischen Gebiete to Heisenberg (15 Sep 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
620. Reichskommissar fur die besetzten niederlandischen Gebiete to Heisenberg (15 Sep 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
621. Cassidy, (1991), 471.
622. Werner Heisenberg, “Bericht,” (10 Nov 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
623. Kuiper to Fischer (30 Jun 1945), Gerald Kuiper Papers, Tuscon (henceforth GKT); I would like to thank Ron Doel for showing me this document.
624. Heisenberg to Hiby (1 Nov 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
625. Interview with Stefan Rosental; Rosenfeld to Heisenberg (10 Dec 1943) Heisenberg MPI; Rosenfeld to Heisenberg (14 Apr 1944) Heisenberg MPI.
626. Kramers to Heisenberg (5 Jul 1944) Heisenberg MPI.
627. Heisenberg to Schwarz (14 Feb 1944) Heisenberg MPI.
628. Coblitz to Dennhardt (8 Dec 1943) R 52 IV/152, Bundesarchiv, Koblenz (henceforth BAK).
629. REM to Heisenberg (13 May 1943) Uk. H1851,23 HUB.
630. Heisenberg to Coblitz (26 May 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
631. Coblitz to Heisenberg (25 May 1943) Heisenberg MPI; Heisenberg to Coblitz (3 Jun 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
632. For the “Copernicus Prize,” see Burleigh, (1988), 279-80.
633. Borger to Heisenberg (7 Jun 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
634. Heisenberg to Borger (11 Jun 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
635. Coblitz to Dennhardt (8 Dec 1943) R 52 IV/152 BAK.
636. Heisenberg to Coblitz (11 Oct 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
637. Heisenberg to Harteck (8 Dec 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
638. Coblitz to Heisenberg (15 Jul 1943) Heisenberg MPI; Coblitz to Heisenberg (29 Sep 1943) Heisenberg MPI; Heisenberg to Coblitz (29
Oct 1943) Heisenberg MPI; Coblitz to Heisenberg (18 Nov 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
639. Cassidy, (1991), 466-67.
640. Burrin, (1994).
641. Spielvogel, (1992), 294.
642. See chapters 8,9, and 10.
643. REM to Heisenberg (17 Jul 1943) Heisenberg MPI; Heisenberg to Deutsches Wissenschaftliches Institut Bucharest (18 Dec 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
644. Deutsche Akademie to Heisenberg (29 Sep 1943) Heisenberg MPI; Deutsche Akademie to Heisenberg (29 Dec 1943) Heisenberg MPI.
645. REM to RUB (29 Dec 1944) Uk. H1851,12 HUB.
646. Laue to Kurator der Uni Berlin (2 Apr 1944) Uk. H1851,11 HUB.
647. “Rapport over Begivenhederne under Besaettelsen af Universitetets Institut for teoretisk Fysik fra d.6.December 1943 til d.3.February 1944,” 1944 or 1945, NBC; thanks to Finn Aaserud und Gro Naes for translating this document.
648. Von Weizsacker to Heisenberg (16 Jan 1944) NAARS.
649. “Rapport” NBC.
650. Handwritten note by Heisenberg on back of Euler to Heisenberg (8 Jan 1944) Heisenberg MPI.
651. “Rapport” NBC.
652. Heisenberg to Jensen (1 Feb 1944) Heisenberg MPI.
653. REM to Heisenberg (1 Mar 1944) Heisenberg MPI; Deutsche For-schungsgemeinschaft to Heisenberg (28 Mar 1944) Heisenberg MPI.
654. Werner Heisenberg, “Bericht,” (27 Apr 1944) Uk. H1851,32 HUB.
655. Wiist to Himmler (15 Oct 1937) Holer BDC.
656. Otto Hotter BDC.
657. SS-Obersturmfuhrcr to Himmler (22 Jun 1937) Hofier BDC.
658. Nagel, (1991).
659. Deichmann, (1992), 199-210.
660. Wust to Himmler (15 Oct 1937) Hofier BDC.
661. SS-Brigadefuhrer und Generalmajor der Polizei to dem Reichsfuhrer-SS im Hause (23 Nov 1942) Hofier BDC.
662. Klinger to Heisenberg (28 Jun 1949) Heisenberg MPI.
663. Heisenberg to Klinger (4 Jul 1949) Heisenberg MPI.
664. Heisenberg to Hofier (27 Apr 1944) Heisenberg MPI; Werner Heisenberg, “Bericht,” (27 Apr 1944) Uk. HI 851,32 HUB.
665. Hofier to Heisenberg (12 Jan 1947) Heisenberg MPI.
666. Heisenberg to Klinger (4 Jul 1944) Heisenberg MPI.
667. Werner Heisenberg, “Die aktive und passive Opposition im Dritten Reich,” (12 Nov 1947) Heisenberg MPI.
668. REM to Heisenberg (9 Aug 1944) Uk. H1851,35 HUB.
669. Powers, (1993), 402.
670. Goudsmit, (1983), 114.
671. REM to Heisenberg (27 Mar 1945) Uk. H1851,36 HUB.
672. For the ambivalence towards Heisenberg and von Weizsacker, see Walker, (1989), 204-21.
673. See chapter 10.
674. Kleinert, (1979); Hentschel, (1990); Hentschel, Studies, (1992); Hent-schel, Turm, (1992).
675. Forman, (1973).
676. Forman, (1974).
677. Forman, (1973); Forman, (1974); Forman, “Helmholtz.”
678. Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 697-99.
679. Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 220-32.
680. The classic accounts are Ludwig and Beyerchen, (1977), 9-50; also see Mehrtens, (1989) and Geuter (1992).
681. See Kershaw, (1991), 37-86 and the primary documents collected and edited by Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 123-91.
682. Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 123-87, esp. 144-54.
683. Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 146,148-50.
684. Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 170-1.
685. Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 167-87.
686. Renneberg and Walker, in Renneberg and Walker, (1993), 9-11.
687. Richter, (1973); Beyerchen, (1977); Kleinert, (1978); Richter, (1978/1979); Kleinert, (1980), 35-38; Richter, (1980); Kleinert in Olff-Nathan, (1993).
688. Heisenberg, (1973), 206-7.
689. Neufeld in Renneberg and Walker, (1993); Neufeld, (1994).
690. Neufeld in Renneberg and Walker, (1993).
691. Heisenberg, (1973), 214; Heisenberg, (1946), 329.
692. Heisenberg, (1946), 329.
693. Noakes and Pridham, (1990), 839-45.
694. Walker, (1989), 209.
695. Vollnhals, (1991).
696. Nietzhammer, (1982).
697. Vollnhals, (1991), 57.
698. See Wise, (1993) and Beyler (1994).
699. Walker, (1989), 198-99.
700. See chapters 2 and 3.
701. Gimbel, (1986); Gimbel, (1990).
702. Albrecht, Heinemann-Gruder, and Wellmann, (1992).
703. See Walker, (1989), and chapter 8.
704. Unfortunately, neither the recordings themselves nor the German originals of the recorded conversations are available; the transcripts have been published, including the two sections available in the original German, as Charles Frank (ed.), Operation Epsilon, (1993),
705. Groves, (1983), 333-40.
706. Goudsmit, (1983), 134-9.
707. The information on membership in National Socialist organizations is available in the personnel files of these scientists at the BDC.
708. Also see chapter 7.
709. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 39,42,54.
710. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 54,215.
711. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 51-3.
712. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 52-3,64-5,189-90.
713. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 50,168,171.
714. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 50,55.
715. Walker, (1989), 204-221.
716. Walker, (1989), 21,56-58.
717. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 72,109,117-21.
718. Walker, (1989), 48-9.
719. Walker, (1989), 46-51,165-78.
720. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 70.
721. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 70-1.
722. Walker, (1989), 23.
723. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 71-2.
724. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 72-4.
725. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 74.
726. Walker, (1989), 23-24.
727. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 74.
728. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 75.
729. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 76.
730. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 75-7,83.
731. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 83.
732. Walker, (1989), 96-9.
733. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 83-4.
734. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 88.
735. Walker, (1989), 21.
736. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 116-17.
737. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 117-18.
738. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 118-40; the original German version of this lecture is given on pages 147-64.
739. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 143-4.
740. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 175.
741. Walker, (1989), 26-7,168,207,209.
742. Smyth, (1945).
743. Walker, (1989), 25-27.
744. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 116,119-20.
745. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 117-18.
746. R.V. Jones, Introduction, in Goudsmit, (1983), xv-xvi; also see Frank’s introduction to Operation Epsilon, (1993), 1-13, especially 5-7.
747. Walker, (1989), 49-51.
748. Goudsmit, (1983), xvi.
749. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 72.
750. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 70,82.
751. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 79-80.
752. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 80.
753. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 82.
754. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 87.
755. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 72.
756. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 79.
757. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 73,78,85,
758. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 85-6,90.
759. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 76-7.
760. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 78.
761. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 80,85-6.
762. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 78.
763. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 76-7.
764. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 90.
765. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 78.
766. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 83.
767. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 67.
768. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 82-3.
769. Walker, (1989), 46-51,205-11.
770. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 175,
771. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 92.
772. Jungk, (1958), 105.
773. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 79-80.
774. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 92.
775. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 171.
776. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 27.
777. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 143.
778. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 89,
779. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 145.
780. See chapter 7.
781. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 87.
782. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 87-8.
783. Walker, (1989), 192-221,
784. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 143.
785. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 88-9.
786. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 92-3.
787. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 92.
788. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 211.
789. Walker, (1989), 177.
790. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 88.
791. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 143.
792. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 110,143.
793. See for example Eckert, (1990) and Eckert and Osietzki, (1989).
794. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 108-9.
795. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 109.
796. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 168.
797. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 230.
798. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 236.
799. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 241.
800. Walker, (1989), 204-21.
801. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 179-80.
802. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 221.
803. Walker, (1989), 179-204.
804. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 266.
805. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 275.
806. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 190.
807. Operation Epsilon, (1993), 77.
808. Walker, (1989), 192-221.
809. Walker, (1989), 153-60.
810. Goudsmit, (1983).
811. Jungk, (1956).
812. Cioc, (1988), 43-6, 75-91; an English version of the manifesto was reprinted as “Declaration(1957).
813. Von Weizsacker, (1957).
814. See chapters 6 and 7.
815. Ladenburg to Goudsmit (23 Oct 1946) Goudsmit, AIP.
816. Van der Waerden to Heisenberg (18 Mar 1948) Heisenberg MPI.
817. Heisenberg to van der Waerden (28 Apr 1948) AIP.
818. Jungk, (1956), 108-11, esp. 110.
819. Jungk to Heisenberg (10 Feb 1955) Heisenberg MPI; Heisenberg to Jungk (14 Feb 1955) Heisenberg MPI.
820. Heisenberg to Jungk (17 Nov 1956) Heisenberg MPI.
821. Jungk, (1958) 101; Heisenberg to Jungk (18 Jan 1957) Heisenberg MPI.
822. Jungk, (1958), 102-4.
823. Jungk, (1958), 81, 91, 102-4; Heisenberg to Jungk (18 Jan 1957) Heisenberg MPI; Heisenberg to Jungk (17 Nov 1956) Heisenberg MPI.
824. After this passage had been written, Jungk corroborated this interpretation; Jungk to the author (30 Apr 1989).
825. Von Weizsacker to the editor (14 Oct 1955), in Seelig, 130-33, here 130-31.
826. Von Weizsacker, (1958), 180-81.
827. Bohr, (1967), 193; see chapters 6 and 7.
828. Kramish, (1985), 120,203.
829. Feinberg, (1989); I would like to thank Carl Friedrich von Weizsacker for sending me a German translation of Feinberg’s article.
830. Citations are from Heisenberg, (1973), 211-14.
831. Citations are from Heisenberg, (1983), 93.
832. Heisenberg, (1983), 96-103.
833. Jungk, (1993), 298-300.
834. Von Weizsacker, Welt, (1991); von Weizsacker, Spiegel, (1991); also see von Weizsacker, (1988), 37-83.
835. See von Weizsacker, (1993), 331-60, here 351.
836. Von Weizsacker, Welt, (1991), 4.
837. Von Weizsacker, Zeit, (1991), 18.
838. Walker, (1989), 47-51.
839. Newsweek (7 Jul 1958), 62; Diamond to Goudsmit (5 Jul 1958) AIP.
840. See chapter 9.
841. Groves, (1983), 333-40; see chapter 9.
842. Goudsmit, (1983), 134-9.
843. The latest in this line are Kramish, (1985) and Powers, (1993).
844. David living’s book, although flawed in other ways, is a notable exception; see Irving, (1983).
845. Powers, (1993), 479; the page references here are taken from the British edition published by Jonathan Cape.
846. Powers, (1993), 507.
847. See chapters 6 and 7.
848. See chapter 9.
849. Powers, (1993), 481.
850. See Hermann and Schumacher, (1986), 11-22.
851. Kramish, (1985), 118-9.
852. Kershaw, (1993), 197-217.
853. Gillispie, (1959).
854. Graham, (1993).

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